• <tr id="yyy80"></tr>
  • <sup id="yyy80"></sup>
  • <tfoot id="yyy80"><noscript id="yyy80"></noscript></tfoot>
  • 99热精品在线国产_美女午夜性视频免费_国产精品国产高清国产av_av欧美777_自拍偷自拍亚洲精品老妇_亚洲熟女精品中文字幕_www日本黄色视频网_国产精品野战在线观看 ?

    Overview on Mangrove Forest Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Functions

    2024-04-01 18:08:41CHENXinpingYINZiqiLIZibinWANGBinTAOAifengGUOZhixingWANGFeiANYanhongandDRISCOLLKieran
    Journal of Ocean University of China 2024年1期

    CHEN Xinping , YIN Ziqi , LI Zibin, WANG Bin, TAO Aifeng , GUO Zhixing,WANG Fei , AN Yanhong , and O’DRISCOLL Kieran

    1) College of Harbour, Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China

    2) National Marine Hazard Mitigation Service, Beijing 100194, China

    3) The People’s Government of Hainan Province, Haikou 570204, China

    4) Hibernian Marine Systems Limited, Cork T12EDD8, Ireland

    Abstract This paper provides a comprehensive overview on coastal protection and hazard mitigation by mangroves. Previous studies have made great strides to understand the mechanisms and influencing factors of mangroves’ protection function, including wave energy dissipation, storm surge damping, tsunami mitigation, adjustment to sea level rise and wind speed reduction, which are systematically summarized in this study. Moreover, the study analyzes the extensive physical models, based on indoor flume experiments and numerical models, that consider the interaction between mangroves and hydrodynamics, to help our understanding of mangrove-hydrodynamic interactions. Additionally, quantitative approaches for valuing coastal protection services provided by mangroves, including index-based and process-resolving approaches, are introduced in detail. Finally, we point out the limitations of previous studies, indicating that efforts are still required for obtaining more long-term field observations during extreme weather events, to create more real mangrove models for physical experiments, and to develop numerical models that consider the flexible properties of mangroves to better predict wave propagation in mangroves having complex morphology and structures.

    Key words mangrove; coastal protection; disaster prevention and mitigation; disaster reduction value; coastal resilience

    1 Introduction

    Mangrove forests are one of the most important types of coastal ecosystems, consisting of a group of trees and shrubs living in the coastal intertidal zone. Mangroves grow in coastal saline or brackish water and have adapted to living in harsh coastal conditions, including high salinity, high temperature, high sedimentation rates and muddy anaerobic soils (Giriet al., 2011). Mangroves are typically located between mean sea level and highest spring tide (Alongi, 2009). In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a new baseline of mangrove extent that assesses the global mangrove area as of 2010 at 137600 km2, spanning 118 countries and territories (Buntinget al.,2018; Friesset al., 2019). Mangroves are distributed worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30?N and 30?S (Giriet al., 2011; Friesset al., 2019). The largest mangrove area is located between 5?N and 5?S (Giriet al.,2011), containing two regional distribution concentrations in Southeast Asia and Central and South America (Alongi,2009; Friesset al., 2019). A previous study concludes that there are about 80 different species of mangroves found in the world, contained in 16 families and 24 genera, including 70 species of true mangroves in 11 families and 16 genera (including 12 varieties) and 14 species of semi-mangrove plants in 8 genera of 5 families (Tomlinson, 2016).

    In China, mangroves are located on the northern edge of the global mangrove distribution areas, and are mainly distributed in the Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces, as well as Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau. According to the Third National Land Survey of China (Office of the Third National Land Survey Leading Group of the State Councilet al., 2021), the area of mangrove forests in China is about 271 km2. Moreover,the mangroves in Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan provinces account for more than 80% of the whole mangrove area in China (State Forestry Administration, 2014). One study has shown that 26 species of true mangrove plants and 12 species of semi-mangrove plants are found in the coastal region of China (Liao and Zhang, 2014). Mangrove area in China accounts for less than 0.2% of the global total,whereas species account for over 1/3 of the global number (Li, 2020).

    Mangroves provide numerous important ecosystem services that play an important role in protecting marine biodiversity and supporting the livelihoods of coastal and island communities: they provide essential habitat for thousands of species (e.g., breeding, spawning and nursery habitat for commercial fish species); filter water, guard shorelines (e.g., protection from floods and storms, provide erosion control, prevention of salt water intrusion); and they create opportunities for tourism and recreation (cultural services) (Spaninks and Van Beukering, 1997; Brownet al.,2006; Branderet al., 2012; Kumar, 2012). Besides, as a type of ‘Blue Forest’ (that includes mangrove forests, seagrass meadows and tidal salt marshes), mangroves are an important constituent of the blue carbon sink on Earth,through sediment burial, mineralization and organic export,which contributes to mitigating climate change (Alongi,2012; Duarteet al., 2013; Hamilton and Friess, 2018).

    Due to global and regional climate change, the risk of natural hazards, including floods and storm surges, have exhibited an increasing trend in recent decades in many coastal areas (P?rtneret al., 2022). By acting as natural barriers, the presence of mangrove ecosystems on coastlines can play an important role in protecting coastal regions, saving lives and property, and preserving communities during natural hazards such as cyclones and storm surges (Mcivoret al., 2012b). Previous studies have made the point that building defense systems against coastal hazards through the construction and restoration of coastal ecosystems such as mangroves can provide a more sustainable, cost-effective and ecologically sound option than through conventional coastal engineering (e.g., building seawalls) (Spaldinget al., 2014; Chávezet al., 2021).Popularly referred to as nature’s coast guards, mangrove ecosystems can, to some extent, improve the resilience of coastlines, by forming a natural protective buffer zone between land and sea.

    Many studies in the literature have demonstrated and described the important role that mangroves play in natural disaster mitigation and coastal protection. The goal of the present study is to provide an overview on these related studies, including mechanisms and influencing factors of coastal protection and hazard mitigation by mangroves (Section 2), models on the dissipation of wave energy through mangroves (Section 3), and quantitative assessment methods for economic benefits of mangrove hazards mitigation (Section 4). Section 5 presents conclusions, in which we summarize the shortcomings of previous studies in order to provide suggestions for further study.

    2 Mechanisms and Influencing Factors of Coastal Protection and Hazard Mitigation by Mangroves

    2.1 Wave Attenuation by Mangroves

    Theoretical analyses and field observations have demonstrated that ocean waves can be damped,i.e., their heights can be reduced over relatively short distances when passing through mangroves (Mazdaet al., 1997; M?lleret al.,1999; Mcivoret al., 2012a). The damage induced on coastal infrastructure by ocean waves can potentially be mitigated by mangroves due to wave damping and wave energy dissipation (Mcivoret al., 2012a).

    The mechanisms of wave energy dissipation in mangroves have been widely studied in previous studies. In general, there are two dominant energy dissipation mechanisms in mangroves: one is dissipation due to the interactions of the flow with the mangrove vegetation, while the other is the dissipation due to wave breaking (Vo-Luong and Massel, 2008). Wave breaking is particularly important for wave attenuation in sparse trees, while the role of vegetation on water flow is dominant in mangroves with high tree density (De Vos, 2004; Quartelet al., 2007). Quartelet al.(2007) compared wave damping by mangrove vegetation and bottom friction at similar water depths, and found that damping by mangroves was 5 – 7.5 times larger than that by bottom friction only, confirming the importance of mangrove vegetation to coastal defence.

    Several factors impact upon ocean wave attenuation through mangroves, including mangrove width, water depth,wave period, current-wave interaction, wave height, topography, tidal elevation and dynamics, and various characteristics of mangroves that most notably depend on the structure and morphology of mangrove trees associated with species, age and size (Mcivoret al., 2012a; Huet al.,2014) (Fig.1). Mangrove structure and characteristics, together with related water depth, are the major factors affecting wave attenuation rates in mangroves, and determine the nature of mangrove obstacles that waves encounter as they pass through the trees (Mcivoret al., 2012a).The density of mangrove obstacles encountered by ocean waves and the height of these obstacles relative to the water depth are among the key factors influencing the rate of wave attenuation with distance in mangroves (Mcivoret al., 2012a).

    The complex root structure, trunks, branches and leaves of mangroves can form a solid barrier network in attenuating water movement (Spaldinget al., 2014). First, some species of mangroves have complicated, strong and extensive root systems, including aerial roots (Fig.1). For example,Rhizophoraspp. mangroves have prop roots,Avicenniaspp. mangroves have pneumatophores, whileBruguieraspp. mangroves have knee roots (De Vos, 2004).On a rising tide, the waves pass through the roots, thereby introducing considerable resistance to water flow, resulting in wave energy dissipation and wave damping (Mazdaet al., 2006). Masselet al.(1999) studied wave attenuation effects by prop roots in the mangroves located in Cocoa Creek in Australia, whereRhizophora stylosais the dominant species, and reported that about 60% of peak wave energy was dissipated within the first 80 m along the extent of the mangrove of the mangrove forest. Second, when compared to mangrove root systems, the trunks normally present a lesser effect on wave attenuation, permitting waves to pass more easily (Mazdaet al., 2006). Third,when the waves reach the mangrove branches and leaves,wave damping is expected to increase again, due to the thick and flexibly spread branches and leaves that interact with waves, resulting in dissipation of wave energy (Mazdaet al., 2006). Moreover, mangrove tree size, shape and branch and aerial root density are age dependent. Mazdaet al.(1997) measured wave attenuation due to the influence ofKandelia candelin three groups of planted trees at different ages,i.e., 1/2-year-old trees, 2-3-year-old trees,and 5-6-year-old trees; and found that 5-6-year-old trees exhibited the greatest attenuation of waves.

    The amount of wave attenuation is also a function the horizontal extent of the mangrove forest along which the waves propagate. Mangroves can attenuate wind and swell waves within a relatively short distance: exponential wave damping dependent upon distance travelled through the mangroves has been demonstrated (Bao, 2011). Using wave measurement data, Bao (2011) studied the relationship between wave height and mangrove cross-shore distances,reporting that waves are approximately exponentially damped in the cross-shore direction. Additionally, Mcivoret al.(2012a) concluded that the rate of wave height attenuation with distance varies from 0.0014 m – 0.011 m, indicating that a 100 m wide long mangrove forest can reduce wave height by 13% – 66%, while a 500 m wide long mangrove forest can damp wave height by 50% – 99% (Mazdaet al.,2006; Quartelet al., 2007).

    Wave heights and periods are also factors that impact upon wave attenuation in mangroves. In general, the rate of wave damping is significantly affected by wave height,with higher amplitude waves being more attenuated (Mazdaet al., 2006; Mazaet al., 2019). Mazaet al.(2019) revealed a linear relationship between the wave damping coefficient and relative wave height (wave height/water depth),thereby demonstrating a strong correlation and reinforcing the idea that larger wave heights result in greater attenuation. However, the impact of wave period on wave attenuation is not prominently observed: the energy spectra for different periods waves did not significantly change when the waves passed through mangroves, implying that waves of different periods were attenuated at a similar rate(Brinkmanet al., 1997). In the study conducted by Mazaet al.(2019), the linear regression analysis for wave periods relative to wave height attenuation exhibited poor fitting performance, indicating that in some cases wave period is not a determining factor for wave damping.

    Wave-current interaction plays a significant role in the process of wave attenuation. Li and Yan (2007) found that following currents (current velocity is in the same direction as wave propagation) promoted wave energy dissipation by vegetation (WDV), and WDV increased linearly with the velocity ratio of imposed current velocity to amplitude of horizontal orbital velocity. Huet al.(2014) conducted comprehensive flume experiments investigating the impact of following currents on wave dissipation within various canopies. Their study revealed a complex relationship between currents and waves, wherein following currents can either decrease or increase wave dissipation, contingent upon the ratio between current velocity and the amplitude of horizontal orbital velocity.

    Another factor affecting wave energy dissipation by mangroves is forest floor slope, whereby changing water depth can cause wave shoaling, breaking and energy dissipation. Mangroves often grow on very gently sloping shores, where they can increase surface elevation by promoting sedimentation over the longer term, leading to decreased water depth, and hence an increase in wave shoaling and energy dissipation (Mcivoret al., 2012a). Utilizing analytical and experiment studies, Parvathy and Bhaskaran (2017) demonstrated the sensitivity of wave attenuation characteristics to beach slopes, with the aim of understanding how wave attenuation characteristics differ with varying bottom slopes in the presence of mangroves.The study reveals that wave height decays exponentially for mild slope, consistent with earlier studies, while wave damping extent becomes more gradual increasing degree of bottom steepness, and can be attributed to water depth variation, shoaling, breaking, and reflection characteristics, within mangroves.

    2.2 Storm Surge Damping by Mangroves

    Since mangroves are situated in tropical and subtropical coastal areas, they face high risks of damage from tropical cyclones and associated storm surges. There is scientific evidence that the complex network of roots, branches and leaves of the mangroves can provide measurable economic protection for coastal communities against storm surges, by slowing the flow of water and diminishing ocean waves (Hochardet al., 2019). This can also act to trap debris or even large moving objects caused by natural events including cyclones and storm surges, thus reducing potential damage from physical impacts of such events (Spaldinget al., 2014; Sakibet al., 2015). Evidence of this is provided in various reports, including Badola and Hussain (2005),Das and Vincent (2009), and Haqueet al.(2012).

    The ability of mangroves to withstand storm surges is affected by a variety of factors, including mangrove characteristics (e.g., forest width extent, structural complexity,dominant species and the projected area of vegetation) and physical characteristics such as channels and pools as well as local topography (Mcivoret al., 2012b). Tidal channels located within mangroves normally reduce the ability of mangroves to withstand storm surges, since water can more easily flow inland along the channels (Mcivoret al.,2012b). Moreover, storm characteristics, such as direction of travel and speed, can affect the resistance of mangroves against storm surges. Zhanget al.(2012) demonstrated that mangroves cause more significant damping in surges of faster moving storms.

    The role of mangroves in diminishing storm surges has been confirmed in the literature. Krausset al.(2009) found that the average rate of water level decline in the mangrove wetland reached 4.2 cm km?1– 9.4 cm km?1when the hurricane storm surge passed through the wetland. The simulation results of Zhanget al.(2012) showed that, without mangroves, the inundated area would extend an additional 70% inland; due to the flooding ‘blockage’ effect by mangroves, the magnitude of storm surge at the leading edge of the forest increased by 10% – 30%; storm surge depth was reduced by the mangroves; and the decay rate of surge amplitude in the central mangrove region was 20 cm km?1– 50 cm km?1. Furthermore, for some low-lying areas on the land side of the mangroves, a small drop in storm surge height (water level) contributed by mangroves can greatly reduce associated flooding (Thampanyaet al., 2006).

    2.3 Mitigating Effect of Mangroves Against Tsunamis

    Previous studies comprising field surveys, statistical analyses and numerical simulations, have improved our understanding of the role mangroves play in mitigating tsunami hazards (Kathiresan and Rajendran, 2005; Yanagisawaet al., 2009). Mangroves can attenuate tsunami associated waves and mitigate their impacts by reducing water flow velocity, height of water level increase, inundation range and destructive energy of water flowing onshore and inland (Spaldinget al., 2014). Numerical simulations have demonstrated that wide mangrove belts (several 100 m) can reduce tsunami-induced wave amplitudes by 5% to 30% (Spaldinget al., 2014). In some extreme cases, however, high-intensity tsunamis can damage or cause severe destruction to the mangroves, to some extent reducing their ability to mitigate tsunami associated hazards, where branches and trunks washed inland with the inundating seawater is likely to cause secondary disasters(Kathiresan and Rajendran, 2005).

    The ability of mangroves to withstand tsunamis is influenced by several factors, including forest width; mangrove characteristics (e.g., tree density, tree diameter, tree height); soil texture; forest location; forest floor slope; tsunami size and speed; distance from tectonic tsunami source;and angle of tsunami incursion relative to the coastline(Alongi, 2008).

    The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami provided clearly demonstrated the protective role of mangroves against the tsunami. The tsunami hit the coasts of several countries in South and Southeast Asia, killing around 200000 people in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand,and other countries. In India, it was stated that the small villages behind the Pichavaram mangrove wetland in the state of Tamil Nadu were physically protected from the tsunami, whereas settlements located on or near the beach,which were not protected by mangroves, were completely devastated (Kesavan and Swaminathan, 2006). Sri Lanka was also greatly impacted by the tsunami with water sweeping inland, especially along eastern and southern coasts. A survey carried out by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) compared the losses of two villages after the tsunami hit, demonstrated that Wanduruppa village surrounded by degraded mangroves suffered 5000– 6000 deaths, whereas Kapuhenwala village, surrounded by 2 km2of dense mangrove forest, only two people were killed. Moreover, it was reported that Simeuleu Island in Indonesia near the epicenter of the earthquake (41 km from the epicenter), was partly saved by its substantial mangrove cover, coral reefs and seagrass beds, resulting in only 4 human deaths (EJF, 2006). Eyewitnesses on Simeuleu Island described the scene: no wave penetrated the mangroves, while instead the water level gently increased ‘like a rising tide’ (EJF, 2006). Similarly, the protective role of mangroves against the tsunami was also demonstrated in Thailand. Phang Nga, the most affected province in Thailand, was well protected by the large mangroves that significantly mitigated the impact of the tsunami, while coastal areas of Phang Nga unprotected by mangroves, were severely impacted (EJF, 2006).

    2.4 Mangrove Adjustment to Sea Level Rise

    Due to glacier melting and disappearance and thermal expansion from ocean warming caused by climate change,global mean sea level has risen since 1900, increasing by 0.20 [0.15 to 0.25] m between 1901 and 2018 (Masson-Delmotteet al., 2021) and continuing to increase at an accelerating rate. A variety of studies, published in the literature, have examined mangrove capacity to keep pace with rising sea level (Hashimotoet al., 2006; Cheonget al.,2013; Krausset al., 2014), demonstrating that the capacity is interactively influenced by hydrological, geomorphological and climatic processes together with plant processes.

    Mangrove forests may directly or indirectly affect vertical changes of the soil surface, by producing and accumulating organic matter, as well as retaining and trapping sediment, due to both physical and biological processes(Krausset al., 2014). Mangrove vegetation can diminish wave energy, slowing the flow of water across the soil surface, thereby permitting suspended sediments to settle out of the water, and promoting the elevation of adjacent mudflats (Bird, 1980; Spaldinget al., 2014). A study found that up to 80% of sediment delivered by tides can be captured by mangrove forests (Furukawaet al., 1997). For some extreme weather events, sediment deposition was observed to be largely stimulated. For example, during Hurricane Wilma, Smithet al.(2009) described the extensive sediment deposition in the mangrove area of Florida that reached up to 8 cm. Additionally, biological processes (e.g.,woody debris deposition, benthic algal matter growth, organic matter decomposition), are also important, but often under-appreciated, for contributing to elevation losses or gain (Krausset al., 2014). Normally, rates of surface elevation changes in mangroves are very slow, resulting in changes affecting the mangroves over long periods, ultimately determining whether the mangrove ecosystem survives (Krausset al., 2014).

    Various studies have noted that, in some mangrove areas, surface elevation increased at a rate similar to sea level rise, through the Holocene and also in recent years(McKeeet al., 2007; Ellison, 2009), indicating that these mangroves are able to adjust to sea level rise (Willard and Bernhardt, 2011; Mcivoret al., 2013; Krausset al., 2014).Moreover, mangroves are not passive to changes affecting them, rather, they are capable of modifying their environment, naturally promoting habitat persistence (Cheonget al., 2013). However, mangrove forests cannot survive if the rate of rising sea level becomes greater than their capacity to keep pace (Hashimotoet al., 2006). In addition, in some areas, such as in western Australia, mangroves can adjust to keeping pace with the rate of coastal erosion, by migrating and expanding inland (Willard and Bernhardt, 2011; Mcivoret al., 2013).

    2.5 Surface Wind Reduction by Mangroves

    Previous studies have shown that mangroves can reduce wind speeds, thus buffering wind-induced water surface movement. When winds blow against the mangrove forests, mangroves act as porous barriers, creating a wind reduction region on the windward side and a low-speed,turbulent wake zone in the lee, followed by a gradual wind speed recovery region (Takle, 2005). Considering the mangrove as an integrated feature of mangrove height, trunk and branch density, forest length, species composition,orientation, determines the effectiveness of mangroves in reducing wind speed reduction (Brandle and Finch, 1991).Moreover, by buffering the water surface from the effects of wind, mangroves can reduce the generation of windwaves, and can make a substantial contribution to storm surge flood levels and damage (Mcivoret al., 2012b).

    The reducing effect of mangroves on wind speeds can be demonstrated from field observations. For example, Chenet al.(2012) collected wind-reducing data ofSonneratia apetalaandKandelia obovatain Dongzhaigang National Nature Reserve, Hainan. The results revealed that, when the wind speed was less than 5 m s?1, the average speed of wind that traveled 50 m within the mangrove forest belt was reduced by more than 85%, and mangroves can reduce the average wind speed by more than 50% in extreme weather when wind speed is greater than 15 m s?1. Moreover, in 2008, Wanget al.(2012) also collected wind speed data when Typhoon ‘Raccoon’ passed through the studied mangrove forest area in the Dongzhaigang National Nature Reserve, Hainan. They concluded that wind speed decreased significantly after passing through the mangrove,with maximum speeds decreasing from 19.67 m s?1to 10.28 m s?1.

    Rahumanet al.(2021) performed simulations and analyses with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques to study the effect of mangroves on reducing wind speeds. Results suggest that mangrove roots have demonstrated great resistance to wind, with a 70% reduction of initial wind speed at 75 km h?1, 250 km h?1and 450 km h?1.Using the Advanced Circulation (ADCIRC) unstructured grid hydrodynamic model, Westerinket al.(2008) considered the variation of peak water levels in hindcasts of Hurricanes Betsy and Andrew whereby surface wind speeds were modified to reflect land cover differences, and pointed out that, comparing to the wind speeds assuming openocean marine conditions, peak water levels decreased more than 1 m in some areas within the mangrove forest, implying the effect of vegetation on wind speed significantly affects storm surge water levels.

    3 Models on the Mechanism of Wave Propagation in Mangroves

    Extensive physical models based on indoor flume experiments and numerical models that consider the interaction between plant and hydrodynamic parameters have been widely used to help understand and predict wave propagation and behavior through mangroves (Mazdaet al.,2006; Wu and Cox, 2015). Both physical model experiments and numerical simulations requirein-situobservation to support model calibration and validation. These observations are also used for visually observing and studying wave propagation process changes around mangroves.Insituobservations are expensive in terms of input effort,time and cost. In this section, we summarize models associated with the mechanism of wave propagation in mangroves, in term of both physical model experiments and numerical simulations.

    3.1 Theoretical Research of Wave Dissipation in Mangroves

    Many previous studies have undertaken theoretical research into vegetation wave dissipation, employing a range of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics theories such as linear wave theory, potential flow theory, and laws of energy and momentum conservation. For example, using hydrodynamics, Dalrympleet al.(1984) analyzed wave motion in vegetated regions to explore the influence of vegetation resistance on wave behavior and thus quantify the resistance to develop a comprehensive model that describes the propagation characteristics of waves in vegetated areas. Based on Dalrymple’s theory, Kobayashiet al.(1993) developed a vertically-averaged momentum equation describing the propagation patterns of waves in mangroves to address situations involving submerged rigid plants. Mendez and Losada (2004) investigated the characteristics of wave breaking on gentle slopes to predict wave height attenuation in irregular waves within vegetated areas. Many studies have developed theories of porous media (e.g., Iimura and Tanaka, 2012; Suzukiet al.,2019) to characterize the movement of water flow within mangrove areas. Based on nonlinear shallow water equations, Suzukiet al.(2019) revealed that porosity effects induce wave reflection, and subsequently contribute to reduce wave height within and behind vegetation fields.

    Extensive research efforts, including theoretical analyses, have been dedicated to investigating the role of drag forces in the equations of wave motion within vegetation areas. These have resulted in the development of expressions for the drag coefficient under varying hydrodynamic conditions and vegetation morphology. Many previous studies have employed theoretical analyses to investigate interactions among drag forces, hydrodynamic conditions,and vegetation morphology, presenting calculation methods for the drag coefficient under different scenarios. Kobayashiet al.(1993) proposed a direct relationship between the drag coefficient and the Reynolds (Re) number, which has been widely adopted several research projects: Huet al.(2014) combined experimental data and theoretical analysis to develop a method for calculating the Reynolds number, and derived an empirical equation that captures the relationship between the drag coefficient and the Reynolds number in the context of wave-current-vegetation interactions; Wanget al.(2022) established a highly correlated empirical relationship with the drag coefficient in the presence of complex mangrove root systems, by introducing a new effective characteristic length and a modified KC number.

    3.2 Physical Model Experiments

    Physical model experiments are established tools for studying complex interaction problems involving plants and hydrodynamics. They have been widely used to quantitatively assess the attenuation of wave propagation in mangrove areas. To set up such experiments, researchers generally need to design and build idealized model trees based on real mangrove plant characteristics; in term of plant shape, trunk diameters and other parameters.

    For example, Struveet al.(2003) carried out physical experiments to investigate the additional resistance to wave propagation created by mangrove model trees. They set the model trees, made from dowels of mixed diameters, onto the channel bottom in a regular grid with varying tree densities in a hydraulic flume, thus suggesting that model tree diameter and density are the most important factors affecting the increase in velocity.

    Wu and Cox (2015) conducted physical model experiments to investigate the effects of wave nonlinearity on the attenuation of irregular waves passing through mangroves. Plastic strips, used as model trees and, attached to a metal sheet in a uniform arrangement with a certain density in a rectangular water tank. The results indicated that steepness across the range of relative water depths, from shallow to deep water, determines the wave damping factor. Moreover, the authors also analyzed drag force coefficient of plants in relation to Reynolds (Re) number, Keulegan-Carpenter (KC) number and Ursell (Ur) number.They pointed out that KC and Ur were better predictors of the drag coefficient than the Re when considering wave nonlinearity effects.

    Physical model experiments can also be used to study the effects of wave dissipation by mangroves on tsunami waves (solitary waves). Yaoet al.(2015) conducted a wave flume experiment to investigate the interaction of solitary waves with emergent and rigid plants on a slope. The results suggest that the ratio of runup to incident wave height,determined by plant density, is constant. Iimura and Tanaka (2012) studied the mitigation effects of different vegetation densities on tsunamis by means of physical model experiments. In their experiment setup, the plants were modelled by wooden cylinders in a staggered arrangement,and a long solitary wave, corresponding to a tsunami height of approximately 3 m offshore, was generated at the boundary. The results reveled that, due to dense vegetation, an obvious increase in the reflected wave height was found to the front of the vegetation, while, behind the vegetation,water level and velocity were reduced resulting from resistance due to the vegetation.

    Recent research studies have developed mangrove models that consider complex mangrove structures to investigate wave attenuation in mangroves. For example, Heet al.(2019) considered the impact of three components of mangroves (roots, trunks, and canopies), on wave attenuation by conducting physical experiments. They demonstrated that the canopy of mangroves generally exhibited more effective wave energy reduction compared to the roots and stems. Wanget al.(2022) focused on detailed three- dimensional complex root modeling of Rhizophora mangrove species, exhibiting that mangrove roots significantly impacted upon wave attenuation, especially in shallow water conditions.

    Overall, physical model experiments are powerful tools for investigating mechanisms and quantification of wave attenuation by mangroves, that consider mangrove characteristics of species, densities and width, as well as various hydrodynamic conditions. However, such models used in previous studies were mostly simplified as cylinder,plastic strips or other simple shapes, which are much simpler than the complex structures and characteristics of mangrove root systems, branches and leaves. Thus, physical models that are closer to real mangrove morphology and structures need to be developed to support more realistic conditions for physical experiments, and can be accomplished by means of 3D printing and other new techniques.

    3.3 Numerical Models

    In recent decades, numerical models have been well developed for quantitatively assessing the function of wave dissipation by of mangroves. Researchers have developed a variety of numerical models based on different theories and assumptions for various case applications.

    One group of such numerical models is based on popular ocean wave models or storm surge models, such as the SWAN (Simulating WAves Nearshore) model (Booijet al.,1999) and the CEST (Coastal and Estuarine Storm Tide)model (Zhanget al., 2012), by including damping effects by vegetation into the models. For example, Chen and Zhao (2012) developed a new model for random waves propagating in vegetation areas based on the SWAN. The model considers energy dissipation of random waves due to bottom friction. Suzukiet al.(2012) extended the SWAN model to include a vertical layer schematization for vegetation. The model calculates two-dimensional wave dissipation over vegetation fields, including wave breaking and diffraction. Zhanget al.(2012) modified the Manning coefficients for various types of land covers to incorporate the drag force of mangroves into the bottom friction term in the CEST model. The modified model resulted in better estimation of mangrove attenuation effects against storm surges compared to statistical methods based on sparse samples. Chenet al.(2021) employed an improved drag force formula, that incorporates the porosity plus drag force method, and applied an improved abstract mangrove tree model in the CEST model. The authors conducted extensive comparisons with the Manning coefficient method, demonstrating that their proposed method provided more accurate quantification for attenuation effects of mangroves against storm surge. Suzukiet al.(2019) introduced a vegetation model integrated into the SWASH (Simulating WAves till SHore) framework that explicitly incorporates the effects of drag force from vertical and horizontal vegetation cylinders, as well as inertia force and porosity. In Van Rooijen’s study (Van Rooijenet al., 2015), formulations were introduced to the XBeach model to incorporate the effects of coastal vegetation on wave energy attenuation and coastal hazard reduction.

    Another group of numerical models for illustrating wave attenuation in mangroves are those models specialized models for dealing with wave motions and interactions between plants and waves in mangrove areas. Models have been developed various ways, using differing assumptions. For example, Mendez and Losada (2004) proposed an empirical model to estimate wave transformation induced by a vegetation field, that includes wave damping and wave breaking over vegetation fields at variable depths.The model considers geometric and physical characteristics of the vegetation field, and depends on a single factor parameterized as a function of the local KC number for a specific type of plant, which is similar to the drag coefficient. By linearizing the non-linear governing equations for wave-trunk interactions based on the stochastic minimalization concept, Masselet al.(1999) presented a theoretical model for predicting attenuation of wind-induced random surface waves within the mangroves. The governing equations introduce interactions between mangrove trunks and waves through the modification of drag coefficients.Bao (2011) established an integrated exponential equation based on field observations of wave attenuation in mangroves, that includes coefficients of initial wave height,canopy closure, mangrove height and density. The integrated equation can calculate the appropriated mangrove band width at a predetermined level of attenuation, according to the maximum average wave height and the safe wave height behind forest band. Vo-Luong and Massel(2008) developed the WAPROMAN (WAve PROpagation in MANgrove forest) model for solving a full boundary value problem to predict the attenuation of waves propagating though non-uniform mangroves in arbitrary water depth. Additionally, some researchers introduced the porous medium theory that considers the plant zone as a porous medium to derive the fluid control equation for wave motions in mangrove areas (Brinkmanet al., 1997; Zou,2020). For example, Zou (2020) introduced drag and inertial forces into the governing equations, to characterize the wave abatement effect of vegetation in the flow field,and got reasonable model results.

    Overall, in recent decades, numerical models have been greatly developed to understand the mechanism of planthydrodynamic interaction in mangroves. However, there are still some shortcomings in the current numerical models. For example, the drag force coefficients developed and in current use are, to some extent, too simple to simulate the complex morphology and structure of various species of mangroves. The flexible effects of branches and roots of mangroves have still not been sufficiently considered in most numerical simulations. Thus, models need to be further developed, so as to better parameterize the relationship between mangrove characteristics and friction.

    4 Quantitative Approaches to Quantifying the Value of Coastal Protection Services Provided by Mangroves

    Mangroves serve as important natural buffers, protecting coastal residents and infrastructure, and providing significant economic benefits in terms of hazard prevention and mitigation (Becket al., 2016; Losadaet al., 2018). In general, economic values of coastal protection services provided by mangroves are based on common tools and approaches, which can also be used as additional aids to the decision-making process, including costs avoided or savings provided by natural habitats (Naidooet al., 2008;Dailyet al., 2009). These tools and approaches can be separated into two main categories: index-based approaches and process-resolving approaches.

    Index-based approaches assess the benefits of hazard risk reduction by estimating the exposure and vulnerability of the mangrove area. The key indices required for the assessment can be calculated by using different configurations of natural habitats and environmental conditions(Becket al., 2016). For example, Arkemaet al.(2013) employed an index-based approach for assessing the vulnerability of flood-prone shorelines with and without coastal habitat in the InVEST (the Coastal Vulnerability Module of InVEST) economic value assessment model. The In-VEST rates seven variables (sea level, winds, wave surge,etc.) with five scales for determining shoreline vulnerability.

    Process-resolving approaches consider processes such as sediment transport and wave-vegetation structure interactions, before applying parameters including waves,storm surges, currents, and tides in the analytical calculations (Becket al., 2016). Process-resolving approaches can be further divided into analytical approximation (semi- empirical formulation) and numerical modeling approaches.Less computational capability is required for the analytical approximation methods, so they can be implemented over a larger area. The numerical modeling methods, however, can resolve coastal processes with higher accuracy,even though they need more computational capability and expertise (Becket al., 2016). In particular, the World Bank recommended the Expected Damage Function (EDF)method for valuing coastal protection services from mangroves, which is also a process-resolving approach (Becket al., 2016). The EDF approach assumes the value of an ecosystem (e.g., mangroves) to reducing economic damage can be estimated and accounted for by the reduction in expected damage (Barbier, 2007; Becket al., 2016).

    Based on valuation approaches, an assessment was implemented for valuing the economic benefits of coastal protection services from mangroves. Lewis III (2005) reported that global mangroves can protect 18 million people against the exposure to coastal hazards while reducing economic property damage by more than $82 billion annually. Without mangroves, more than 39% of the population and 16% of the property in the globe would be additionally affected by coastal hazards (Lewis III, 2005;Friesset al., 2019). Overall, assessments based on valuation approaches have revealed that mangroves can protect millions of coastal citizens globally while greatly reducing economic property damage annually.

    5 Conclusions

    This study summarizes the coastal protection function provided by mangroves against coastal threats, including,hazardous ocean waves, storm surges, winds and tsunamis.Mangroves can effectively reduce wind speeds and ocean wave heights over a relatively short distance. A 100-meter-wide mangrove belt can reduce wave height by 13%to 66% depending on species and density (Mazdaet al.,2006; Mcivoret al., 2012a). Mangroves can also withstand storm surges or mitigate the hazard of tsunamis by reducing water flow velocity and destructive energy of water flowing inland (Thampanyaet al., 2006; Alongi, 2008;Krausset al., 2009). Moreover, mangroves can permit suspended sediments to accumulate and subside out of the water to raise the ground gradually, and thus own the potential ability adjusting to sea level rise (Ellison, 2009;Spaldinget al., 2014). Mangroves also provide significant economic benefits in terms of hazard mitigation (Becket al., 2016; Losadaet al., 2018).

    Previous studies have greatly improved our ability to understand and predict the mechanism of behavior of wave propagation in mangroves, by means of observations,theoretical analysis, physical model experiments and numerical models. Idealized model trees are the fundamental tools for physical model experiments, which are designed and built based on real mangrove plant characteristics in term of plant shape, trunk diameters and other parameters. Moreover, numerical models have seen great developments by considering geometric and physical characteristics of the mangrove field. Many researchers have extended popular ocean wave models or storm surge models (e.g., the SWAN, the CEST, the SWASH, the XBeach),to introduce vegetation effects on water movements into the models. Additionally, many studies developed some specialized numerical models (e.g., the WAPROMAN) to deal with the interaction of plants and waves in mangrove areas.

    Some aspects still require further study on the mechanisms of coastal protection and hazard mitigation by mangroves. Firstly, field observations have been reported in some previous studies, while they are still lacking, especially for long-term, multi-locations observations during extreme events. Secondly, mangrove models adopted in physical experiments in previous studies were mostly simplified as cylinder, plastic strips or other simple shapes,which are limited in their ability to represent the complex structures and characteristics of mangrove root systems,branches and leaves. Therefore, models that better represent real mangrove morphology and structures are required for further development. Thirdly, in numerical models, the flexible effects of branches and roots of mangroves have not been fully considered in previous studies that are needed to further study to better simulate the behavior of waves propagating in various species of mangroves with complex morphology and structures.

    Acknowledgements

    This research is funded by the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2023YFC3007900), the Young Scientists Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 42106204), the Jiangsu Basic Research Program (Natural Science Foundation) (No. BK20220082), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 5227 1271), and the Major Science & Technology Projects of the Ministry of Water Resources (No. SKS-2022025).

    亚洲欧美一区二区三区黑人| 一进一出抽搐动态| 国产69精品久久久久777片 | 麻豆国产97在线/欧美| 欧美黑人巨大hd| 中文在线观看免费www的网站| 国产亚洲精品一区二区www| 日韩免费av在线播放| 国产91精品成人一区二区三区| 中文字幕人妻丝袜一区二区| 最近在线观看免费完整版| 制服人妻中文乱码| 天天一区二区日本电影三级| 日韩人妻高清精品专区| 琪琪午夜伦伦电影理论片6080| 夜夜爽天天搞| 亚洲成a人片在线一区二区| 亚洲人成网站高清观看| 身体一侧抽搐| 19禁男女啪啪无遮挡网站| 日本一二三区视频观看| 啦啦啦观看免费观看视频高清| 女同久久另类99精品国产91| 午夜a级毛片| 99国产综合亚洲精品| 欧美日韩福利视频一区二区| 国产激情偷乱视频一区二区| 波多野结衣高清无吗| 亚洲中文av在线| 欧美乱妇无乱码| 久久久久精品国产欧美久久久| 国产精品国产高清国产av| 亚洲成人精品中文字幕电影| 免费观看人在逋| 97超级碰碰碰精品色视频在线观看| 啦啦啦韩国在线观看视频| 999久久久精品免费观看国产| 99久久精品热视频| 久久九九热精品免费| 国产高清videossex| 欧美激情久久久久久爽电影| 久久久成人免费电影| 国产精品久久久久久人妻精品电影| 免费看日本二区| 国产熟女xx| 日韩欧美国产一区二区入口| 日本免费a在线| 久久这里只有精品19| 99久久精品一区二区三区| 一进一出抽搐gif免费好疼| 88av欧美| x7x7x7水蜜桃| 又黄又爽又免费观看的视频| 色吧在线观看| av女优亚洲男人天堂 | 床上黄色一级片| 国产亚洲精品久久久com| 日韩欧美在线二视频| 日韩国内少妇激情av| 搡老岳熟女国产| 性色av乱码一区二区三区2| 国产亚洲欧美98| 亚洲国产欧美网| 亚洲av成人不卡在线观看播放网| 90打野战视频偷拍视频| 欧美成人免费av一区二区三区| 免费看光身美女| 亚洲成人中文字幕在线播放| 丝袜人妻中文字幕| 制服人妻中文乱码| 动漫黄色视频在线观看| 成年女人永久免费观看视频| 免费在线观看成人毛片| 美女被艹到高潮喷水动态| 午夜福利高清视频| 黄色视频,在线免费观看| 免费在线观看成人毛片| 激情在线观看视频在线高清| 精品国产三级普通话版| 青草久久国产| 日韩欧美在线乱码| 亚洲成人中文字幕在线播放| 黄片大片在线免费观看| 小蜜桃在线观看免费完整版高清| 免费看a级黄色片| 俄罗斯特黄特色一大片| 首页视频小说图片口味搜索| 人人妻人人看人人澡| 神马国产精品三级电影在线观看| cao死你这个sao货| 丰满人妻熟妇乱又伦精品不卡| 在线观看舔阴道视频| 国产爱豆传媒在线观看| 亚洲九九香蕉| 久久伊人香网站| 少妇熟女aⅴ在线视频| 此物有八面人人有两片| 欧美日本视频| 午夜亚洲福利在线播放| 99国产综合亚洲精品| 久久天躁狠狠躁夜夜2o2o| 黄色片一级片一级黄色片| 午夜成年电影在线免费观看| 最新美女视频免费是黄的| 亚洲国产精品久久男人天堂| 色av中文字幕| 老司机午夜福利在线观看视频| 国产av一区在线观看免费| 99精品在免费线老司机午夜| 亚洲专区字幕在线| 99国产精品一区二区三区| 国产一级毛片七仙女欲春2| 人人妻人人澡欧美一区二区| 欧美黑人欧美精品刺激| 欧美成人性av电影在线观看| 国产真实乱freesex| 色尼玛亚洲综合影院| 中文资源天堂在线| 每晚都被弄得嗷嗷叫到高潮| 久久这里只有精品中国| 九九热线精品视视频播放| 一本久久中文字幕| 色综合欧美亚洲国产小说| 麻豆一二三区av精品| 国产亚洲av高清不卡| 婷婷六月久久综合丁香| 成年人黄色毛片网站| 精品久久久久久久人妻蜜臀av| 日本五十路高清| 一夜夜www| 欧美国产日韩亚洲一区| 在线免费观看的www视频| 亚洲五月天丁香| 中文字幕最新亚洲高清| 精品人妻1区二区| 成人午夜高清在线视频| 99热这里只有是精品50| 亚洲自拍偷在线| 欧美黑人巨大hd| 精品久久久久久久久久免费视频| 亚洲专区中文字幕在线| 99久久无色码亚洲精品果冻| 怎么达到女性高潮| 欧美在线黄色| 可以在线观看的亚洲视频| 小蜜桃在线观看免费完整版高清| 一a级毛片在线观看| 免费看十八禁软件| 欧美高清成人免费视频www| 五月伊人婷婷丁香| 欧美成狂野欧美在线观看| 久久久久久久久中文| 日韩欧美精品v在线| 中亚洲国语对白在线视频| 制服人妻中文乱码| 成人三级黄色视频| 国产欧美日韩一区二区精品| 欧美精品啪啪一区二区三区| 久久精品影院6| 国产视频内射| 一区二区三区激情视频| 欧美日韩乱码在线| 亚洲在线自拍视频| 日韩欧美精品v在线| 一边摸一边抽搐一进一小说| 国产亚洲精品一区二区www| 男女做爰动态图高潮gif福利片| 中亚洲国语对白在线视频| 亚洲 欧美一区二区三区| 国产男靠女视频免费网站| 啪啪无遮挡十八禁网站| 国产亚洲精品综合一区在线观看| 国产蜜桃级精品一区二区三区| 精品一区二区三区视频在线 | 麻豆成人午夜福利视频| 亚洲精品色激情综合| 午夜福利欧美成人| 最新中文字幕久久久久 | 亚洲五月天丁香| 中文字幕最新亚洲高清| 亚洲成人免费电影在线观看| 91麻豆精品激情在线观看国产| 国产精品久久视频播放| 日本三级黄在线观看| 在线观看免费视频日本深夜| 在线永久观看黄色视频| 亚洲国产欧美一区二区综合| 欧美中文日本在线观看视频| 国产伦精品一区二区三区四那| 久久精品91蜜桃| 国产欧美日韩精品亚洲av| 精品一区二区三区视频在线 | 国产精品99久久久久久久久| av天堂在线播放| 女生性感内裤真人,穿戴方法视频| 亚洲人与动物交配视频| 超碰成人久久| 男人舔女人下体高潮全视频| 亚洲精品久久国产高清桃花| 亚洲人成网站高清观看| 日韩免费av在线播放| 五月玫瑰六月丁香| 高清毛片免费观看视频网站| 国产在线精品亚洲第一网站| av在线蜜桃| 女生性感内裤真人,穿戴方法视频| 免费在线观看亚洲国产| 成人国产综合亚洲| 深夜精品福利| 国内精品久久久久久久电影| 一个人看视频在线观看www免费 | 国产男靠女视频免费网站| 久久久久久国产a免费观看| 亚洲精华国产精华精| 免费在线观看亚洲国产| 小蜜桃在线观看免费完整版高清| 日韩欧美国产一区二区入口| 天天添夜夜摸| 久9热在线精品视频| 国产探花在线观看一区二区| 超碰成人久久| 一进一出抽搐gif免费好疼| 久久国产乱子伦精品免费另类| 啪啪无遮挡十八禁网站| 亚洲天堂国产精品一区在线| 小说图片视频综合网站| av欧美777| 高清毛片免费观看视频网站| 亚洲天堂国产精品一区在线| 变态另类成人亚洲欧美熟女| 亚洲av成人av| 欧美色欧美亚洲另类二区| 久久国产精品人妻蜜桃| 身体一侧抽搐| 97超视频在线观看视频| 欧美在线一区亚洲| 美女扒开内裤让男人捅视频| 99视频精品全部免费 在线 | 国产精品av久久久久免费| 午夜福利在线观看吧| 在线观看午夜福利视频| 精品国产乱子伦一区二区三区| 大型黄色视频在线免费观看| 日韩欧美免费精品| 成年免费大片在线观看| 中文字幕av在线有码专区| 国产乱人伦免费视频| 亚洲熟妇中文字幕五十中出| 久久九九热精品免费| 日日摸夜夜添夜夜添小说| 一个人看的www免费观看视频| 久久婷婷人人爽人人干人人爱| 日韩高清综合在线| 亚洲第一电影网av| 精品一区二区三区视频在线观看免费| 巨乳人妻的诱惑在线观看| 一个人免费在线观看的高清视频| 午夜激情福利司机影院| 免费在线观看视频国产中文字幕亚洲| 国产伦精品一区二区三区视频9 | 国产一区在线观看成人免费| 18禁观看日本| 噜噜噜噜噜久久久久久91| 国产精品爽爽va在线观看网站| 成人性生交大片免费视频hd| 久久久精品大字幕| 免费看a级黄色片| 国产精品久久视频播放| 国产精品一区二区免费欧美| 亚洲欧美精品综合一区二区三区| 久久中文看片网| 久9热在线精品视频| 一级毛片高清免费大全| 午夜a级毛片| 香蕉丝袜av| bbb黄色大片| 一区二区三区国产精品乱码| 国产成人系列免费观看| 精品久久久久久久末码| 99精品在免费线老司机午夜| 色在线成人网| 久久久久久久精品吃奶| 中文在线观看免费www的网站| 国内少妇人妻偷人精品xxx网站 | 亚洲成av人片在线播放无| 亚洲一区二区三区色噜噜| 1024香蕉在线观看| 午夜精品在线福利| 两性午夜刺激爽爽歪歪视频在线观看| 国产91精品成人一区二区三区| 国产成人aa在线观看| 香蕉久久夜色| 草草在线视频免费看| 中国美女看黄片| 窝窝影院91人妻| 久久人人精品亚洲av| 中亚洲国语对白在线视频| 亚洲欧美激情综合另类| 午夜日韩欧美国产| 免费看a级黄色片| 老鸭窝网址在线观看| 成人一区二区视频在线观看| 村上凉子中文字幕在线| 男女视频在线观看网站免费| 欧美中文综合在线视频| 日本成人三级电影网站| a级毛片a级免费在线| 亚洲第一电影网av| www.自偷自拍.com| 国产黄a三级三级三级人| 亚洲五月婷婷丁香| 国产伦精品一区二区三区四那| 久久国产乱子伦精品免费另类| 色精品久久人妻99蜜桃| 亚洲av中文字字幕乱码综合| 男人舔女人下体高潮全视频| 亚洲五月天丁香| 看片在线看免费视频| 久久99热这里只有精品18| bbb黄色大片| 亚洲欧美精品综合一区二区三区| 亚洲精品美女久久av网站| 国产视频内射| 欧美绝顶高潮抽搐喷水| 久久精品aⅴ一区二区三区四区| 成人av在线播放网站| 岛国在线观看网站| 天堂√8在线中文| 熟女人妻精品中文字幕| 亚洲午夜理论影院| 在线永久观看黄色视频| 亚洲人与动物交配视频| 一个人看的www免费观看视频| 国产精品一区二区三区四区久久| 日韩高清综合在线| 久久久精品大字幕| 亚洲自拍偷在线| 99riav亚洲国产免费| 久久久久久久久中文| 国产精品一及| xxxwww97欧美| 少妇熟女aⅴ在线视频| 久久婷婷人人爽人人干人人爱| 在线观看日韩欧美| 亚洲va日本ⅴa欧美va伊人久久| 免费高清视频大片| 欧美中文综合在线视频| www日本在线高清视频| 久久天堂一区二区三区四区| 黄色片一级片一级黄色片| 亚洲午夜理论影院| 久久香蕉国产精品| 一本精品99久久精品77| 亚洲乱码一区二区免费版| 亚洲黑人精品在线| 色尼玛亚洲综合影院| 午夜免费成人在线视频| 国产成人影院久久av| 国产免费男女视频| 深夜精品福利| 99热这里只有精品一区 | 久久这里只有精品中国| 久久久久国内视频| 成人高潮视频无遮挡免费网站| 深夜精品福利| 成年女人毛片免费观看观看9| 亚洲一区二区三区不卡视频| 国产成年人精品一区二区| 国产v大片淫在线免费观看| 亚洲成人久久性| 成人无遮挡网站| 香蕉久久夜色| 一区福利在线观看| 国产淫片久久久久久久久 | av视频在线观看入口| 亚洲av成人精品一区久久| 最新中文字幕久久久久 | 欧美日韩瑟瑟在线播放| 九九热线精品视视频播放| 国产在线精品亚洲第一网站| 日韩精品中文字幕看吧| 日韩欧美三级三区| 国产单亲对白刺激| 国产亚洲精品久久久久久毛片| 极品教师在线免费播放| 成人一区二区视频在线观看| 免费av毛片视频| 国内精品久久久久久久电影| 999精品在线视频| 狠狠狠狠99中文字幕| 9191精品国产免费久久| 欧美一区二区国产精品久久精品| 夜夜躁狠狠躁天天躁| 精品国产美女av久久久久小说| 国产亚洲欧美98| 午夜视频精品福利| 亚洲精品久久国产高清桃花| 亚洲午夜理论影院| 88av欧美| 色av中文字幕| 欧美3d第一页| 成人国产综合亚洲| 综合色av麻豆| 免费在线观看亚洲国产| 国产av一区在线观看免费| 亚洲专区中文字幕在线| 一卡2卡三卡四卡精品乱码亚洲| 成人特级黄色片久久久久久久| 亚洲av熟女| 中文字幕av在线有码专区| 国产精品免费一区二区三区在线| 亚洲欧美精品综合久久99| 成人国产一区最新在线观看| 免费观看的影片在线观看| 国产精品一区二区三区四区免费观看 | 首页视频小说图片口味搜索| 久久久久久九九精品二区国产| 日韩高清综合在线| 成人国产综合亚洲| 免费大片18禁| 日日摸夜夜添夜夜添小说| 99热只有精品国产| 久久伊人香网站| 亚洲成人中文字幕在线播放| 最新在线观看一区二区三区| 亚洲成人久久性| 桃红色精品国产亚洲av| 老司机在亚洲福利影院| 免费大片18禁| 亚洲成av人片在线播放无| 国产一区二区在线av高清观看| 中文在线观看免费www的网站| 国产伦精品一区二区三区视频9 | 精品电影一区二区在线| 久久中文字幕一级| 啦啦啦观看免费观看视频高清| 国产精品久久久人人做人人爽| 久9热在线精品视频| 日韩精品中文字幕看吧| 成人午夜高清在线视频| 欧美日韩瑟瑟在线播放| 亚洲精品色激情综合| 欧洲精品卡2卡3卡4卡5卡区| 18禁黄网站禁片免费观看直播| 在线观看免费午夜福利视频| 精品一区二区三区av网在线观看| 久久天堂一区二区三区四区| 国产成人欧美在线观看| 日韩人妻高清精品专区| 十八禁人妻一区二区| 亚洲午夜精品一区,二区,三区| 日日干狠狠操夜夜爽| 久久人妻av系列| 少妇人妻一区二区三区视频| 18禁黄网站禁片午夜丰满| 国产视频一区二区在线看| 亚洲国产精品成人综合色| netflix在线观看网站| 国产成年人精品一区二区| 免费在线观看成人毛片| 变态另类成人亚洲欧美熟女| 国产高清有码在线观看视频| 中文字幕高清在线视频| 国产欧美日韩精品亚洲av| 亚洲欧洲精品一区二区精品久久久| 在线永久观看黄色视频| 精品日产1卡2卡| 此物有八面人人有两片| 别揉我奶头~嗯~啊~动态视频| 动漫黄色视频在线观看| 亚洲精华国产精华精| 一本综合久久免费| 99精品欧美一区二区三区四区| 级片在线观看| 国内揄拍国产精品人妻在线| 欧美一级毛片孕妇| 村上凉子中文字幕在线| 非洲黑人性xxxx精品又粗又长| 免费在线观看影片大全网站| 一边摸一边抽搐一进一小说| 麻豆成人av在线观看| 亚洲aⅴ乱码一区二区在线播放| 91在线观看av| 国产黄a三级三级三级人| 怎么达到女性高潮| 丰满人妻一区二区三区视频av | av视频在线观看入口| 国产欧美日韩精品一区二区| 亚洲国产精品sss在线观看| 免费在线观看成人毛片| 久久久久亚洲av毛片大全| 国产淫片久久久久久久久 | 精品国产美女av久久久久小说| 国产日本99.免费观看| 三级男女做爰猛烈吃奶摸视频| 91av网站免费观看| 啦啦啦观看免费观看视频高清| 亚洲欧美日韩无卡精品| 欧美色欧美亚洲另类二区| 亚洲av成人不卡在线观看播放网| 老司机午夜十八禁免费视频| 网址你懂的国产日韩在线| 国产伦人伦偷精品视频| 亚洲中文日韩欧美视频| 九九热线精品视视频播放| 国产探花在线观看一区二区| 淫秽高清视频在线观看| 啦啦啦观看免费观看视频高清| 十八禁网站免费在线| 脱女人内裤的视频| 日韩三级视频一区二区三区| 日日夜夜操网爽| 亚洲精品国产精品久久久不卡| 丰满人妻熟妇乱又伦精品不卡| 日韩欧美一区二区三区在线观看| 久久国产精品人妻蜜桃| 亚洲激情在线av| 久久热在线av| 在线免费观看的www视频| 国产高清三级在线| 深夜精品福利| 国产成人av激情在线播放| 中文字幕人妻丝袜一区二区| 天堂av国产一区二区熟女人妻| 麻豆国产97在线/欧美| 精品久久久久久久人妻蜜臀av| 综合色av麻豆| 久久久久久久久中文| 天天添夜夜摸| 又黄又粗又硬又大视频| 黄频高清免费视频| 少妇熟女aⅴ在线视频| 中亚洲国语对白在线视频| 欧美日韩综合久久久久久 | 国模一区二区三区四区视频 | 国产亚洲av嫩草精品影院| 亚洲成人免费电影在线观看| 1024手机看黄色片| 国产精品综合久久久久久久免费| 久99久视频精品免费| 亚洲精品在线观看二区| 亚洲一区高清亚洲精品| 美女免费视频网站| www.精华液| 精品国产美女av久久久久小说| 久久人妻av系列| 哪里可以看免费的av片| 欧美最黄视频在线播放免费| 嫩草影院精品99| 日韩精品中文字幕看吧| 母亲3免费完整高清在线观看| 国产极品精品免费视频能看的| 精品一区二区三区视频在线 | 亚洲国产看品久久| 欧美日韩亚洲国产一区二区在线观看| 日韩欧美三级三区| 波多野结衣巨乳人妻| 黄频高清免费视频| 女同久久另类99精品国产91| 中亚洲国语对白在线视频| 亚洲精品在线美女| 在线看三级毛片| 女人高潮潮喷娇喘18禁视频| 亚洲精品456在线播放app | 欧美在线一区亚洲| 免费av不卡在线播放| 又大又爽又粗| 精品国产超薄肉色丝袜足j| 一进一出抽搐动态| 欧美av亚洲av综合av国产av| 特大巨黑吊av在线直播| 一a级毛片在线观看| 欧洲精品卡2卡3卡4卡5卡区| 亚洲激情在线av| 男女那种视频在线观看| 变态另类丝袜制服| 亚洲成av人片在线播放无| 九九热线精品视视频播放| 欧美乱码精品一区二区三区| 我要搜黄色片| 在线观看66精品国产| 高清毛片免费观看视频网站| 悠悠久久av| 久久这里只有精品19| 97人妻精品一区二区三区麻豆| 国产激情久久老熟女| 欧美黄色片欧美黄色片| 亚洲 欧美一区二区三区| 中文字幕熟女人妻在线| 国产毛片a区久久久久| 后天国语完整版免费观看| 免费看a级黄色片| 91麻豆av在线| 国产精品一及| 国产探花在线观看一区二区| 90打野战视频偷拍视频| 欧美乱色亚洲激情| 嫩草影院入口| 亚洲中文字幕一区二区三区有码在线看 | 成熟少妇高潮喷水视频| 国产精品免费一区二区三区在线| xxx96com| 黄色视频,在线免费观看| 国产精品国产高清国产av| 男人的好看免费观看在线视频| 久久久久久九九精品二区国产| 久久久国产成人精品二区| 精品国产美女av久久久久小说| 99热这里只有是精品50| 午夜免费观看网址| 亚洲第一电影网av| 十八禁网站免费在线| 一级毛片高清免费大全| 国产欧美日韩精品亚洲av| 日韩欧美国产在线观看|