Legacy of Civilization: Ancient Chinese Science and Technology

This book， written by Professor Sun Xiaochun， a renowned expert in the history of science and technology at the University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences， presents a comprehensive history of ancient Chinese science and technology. It analyzes the characteristics of scientific thought in ancient China and places them within the broader context of global development， uncovering the deeper reasons behind the success of important Chinese inventions and innovations. The book uses specific examples to reveal the core spirit and methodology of ancient Chinese science， showcasing how technology has driven social progress and the development of civilization throughout China’s long history.

“The Five Grains” and “the Six Livestock”: The Rise of Agricultural Civilization

Legacy of Civilization: Ancient Chinese Science and Technology

Sun Xiaochun

China Science and Technology Press

April 2024

168.00 (CNY)

Sun Xiaochun

Sun Xiaochun is the dean and a professor at the School of Humanities at the University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences， as well as the president of the Chinese Society for the History of Science and Technology.

The establishment and development of agricultural economies are among the critical foundations of ancient civilizations. Around ten thousand years ago， humanity entered the Neolithic Age， whose greatest achievement was the rise of agricultural civilization. The birthplaces of the world’s early ancient civilizations were often centered around areas of primitive agriculture. The invention of agriculture marked a revolutionary epoch， one of the most significant transformations in human history. For instance， the civilizations of Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt were directly linked to the early agriculture of the Middle East， where wheat and barley were the main crops. Similarly， the foundation of ancient Mesoamerican civilizations was the cultivation of maize.

In China， Neolithic agricultural culture developed from the Late Paleolithic culture. By the Late Paleolithic period， China had already exhibited regional diversification in its cultural development， which led to the emergence of multiple agricultural centers in the Neolithic era. The origins of Chinese agriculture can be broadly divided into two geographical trajectories: The first was the emergence of dry farming in northern China， characterized by the cultivation of millet and broomcorn millet; the second was the development of wet rice farming in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. A more detailed breakdown reveals four major agricultural zones: the dryland farming culture of northern China， the paddy field agriculture culture of central China， the dryland agriculture and hunting culture of northeastern China， and the paddy field agriculture and gathering culture of southern China. These four agricultural regions were closely interconnected， and their interactions and exchanges were powerful forces driving the advancement of Chinese history.

Similar to other civilizations， the origin of agriculture in China was an extended process. It began around ten thousand years ago with the advent of cultivation practices and culminated in the Late Neolithic period， approximately 5000--6000 years ago. The origin of agriculture was a process of technological and economic development in human society. Agriculture evolved from hunting and gathering; during this transition， the importance of hunting and gathering in economic life gradually diminished， while the role of agricultural production increased. Eventually， agricultural production supplanted hunting and gathering as the mainstay of the economy， marking the transition to an agricultural society.

The origins of dry farming in northern China date back about 10，000 years， a period roughly coinciding with the domestication of major crops worldwide， likely influenced by global climate changes during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene epochs. The Donghulin site in Mentougou， Beijing， has been carbon-dated to 9，000--11，000 years ago. Charred millet grains were unearthed at this site， which already exhibited the basic characteristics of domesticated millet， though the grains were very small， possibly representing a transitional stage from wild foxtail millet to cultivated millet. The Donghulin site is relatively small， with evidence of burials， hearths， and ash pits， but no residential structures. Artifacts include pottery， stone tools， and bone implements， as well as animal bones， though no domesticated animal remains were found. These findings suggest that the ancient inhabitants of Donghulin were still living as a small， hunter-gatherer community， relying mainly on wild food sources. However， the charred millet grains indicate that they had already begun cultivating millet.

Around 8，000 years ago， China reached a crucial phase in agricultural development， marked by the transition from a society based on hunting and gathering to one centered around farming. Numerous archaeological sites from this period have been discovered in northern China， showing clear signs of early agricultural practices. Notable sites include the Cishan site in Wu’an， Hebei; the Peiligang and Shawo Li sites in Xinzheng， Henan; the Yuezhang site in Jinan， Shandong; the Dadiwan site in Qin’an， Gansu; the Xinle site in Shenyang， Liaoning; the Xinglongwa site in Aohan， Inner Mongolia; and the Jiahu site in Wuyang， Henan. These sites have yielded various remains of millet and broomcorn millet. The Cishan site， dating back about 8，000 years， produced carbonized grains of both millet and broomcorn millet， with broomcorn millet being the more predominant of the two. Similarly， the Xinglongwa site， also around 8，000 years old， yielded a large number of carbonized plant remains. The carbonized broomcorn millet grains found there were elongated and oval in shape， differing significantly from wild broomcorn millet seeds， suggesting a transition from small， elongated， and flat wild seeds to larger， rounder， and fuller domesticated grains. This indicates that the broomcorn millet unearthed at Xinglongwa was in the process of domestication from wild to cultivated varieties. Additionally， the remains of pig skulls were found in large quantities within residential structures at Xinglongwa. While most of these skulls retained wild boar characteristics， some displayed features of domesticated pigs， indicating that the Xinglongwa people were feeding surplus grains to pigs. These findings suggest that although the ancient inhabitants of northern China still primarily relied on" hunting and gathering for food， they had begun cultivating millet and broomcorn millet and started domesticating animals， laying the groundwork for early agricultural production and livestock farming.

The Yangshao culture， dating back about 6，000 years， represents a period of rapid development in ancient civilization in northern China. Numerous sites from this period have been discovered， mainly in the Weishui River basin， the Fenhe River valley， and the Yiluo River basin， with the Banpo site in Xi’an， Shaanxi Province， being the most famous. During this time， agricultural production saw significant advancements， with the discovery of large village sites covering up to one million square meters. Large quantities of carbonized plant seeds， primarily millet and broomcorn millet， have been found at these sites. The unearthed stone tools include stone axes， stone shovels， and stone hoes used for cultivation， stone knives and ceramic knives for harvesting crops， and stone grinders and stone pestles for processing grains.

Archaeologists have also uncovered a large number of animal remains， mostly from domesticated pigs and dogs， with some remains of goats， sheep， and cattle. The discovery of livestock pens and nighttime shelters indicates that by the Yangshao culture period， farming had become a significant part of economic life. By the middle of the Yangshao culture period， the need to gain food resources through gathering had diminished significantly. Dry farming， characterized by the cultivation of millet and broomcorn millet， had become the economic foundation of the Yangshao culture. From this point forward， the northern regions of China， represented by the Yangshao culture， officially entered a stage of social development dominated by agricultural production. As the Yangshao culture evolved into the Miaodigou culture， its distribution expanded significantly， its cultural influence grew stronger， and the differentiation between settlements became more pronounced， with flourishing painted pottery art. The agricultural society established by the Yangshao culture laid the foundation for the later emergence of the Huaxia civilization.

The Longshan culture， which emerged about 5，000 years ago， developed from the late Yangshao culture and was primarily distributed in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River and nearby areas. The distribution of Longshan sites was similar to that of the Yangshao culture， but the number of sites increased significantly. Agricultural production continued to focus on millet and broomcorn millet， but the tools used for farming became more diverse and refined. Stone tools were mainly ground rather than chipped， and stone shovels became thinner， wider， and more standardized， making them easier to handle or attach to other implements. The variety of tools used for harvesting crops， such as crescent-shaped stone knives and stone sickles， became more complete and abundant. This period also saw the emergence of storage pits and granaries for storing grain. Animal husbandry also saw significant development， with pigs remaining the primary domesticated animals， and the addition of water buffalo， with horses possibly having been domesticated as well. The livestock system， known later as the “Six Livestock，” was largely formed during this period.

As dry farming agriculture was emerging in northern China， rice farming in the south was also developing. The earliest evidence of ancient rice cultivation has been discovered at four archaeological sites: the Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan sites in Wannian， Jiangxi Province; the Yuchanyan site in Daoxian， Hunan Province; and the Shangshan site in Pujiang， Zhejiang Province. Among these， the Shangshan site has yielded a large quantity of carbonized rice husks， some of which were found embedded in pottery shards.

These sites date back approximately 10，000 years， suggesting that rice had already become an essential part of the lives of the southern ancestors. However， whether this rice was wild or cultivated remains a topic of debate. The animal remains found at these sites are predominantly wild， indicating that animal domestication had not yet occurred at that time.

Similar to the development of dry farming in the north， modern archaeological excavations have uncovered numerous sites in southern China with characteristics of early rice farming， dating back about 8，000 years. Examples include the Pengtoushan site in Lixian， Hunan Province; the Hemudu site in Zhejiang Province; and the Jiahu site and Baligang site in Henan Province. These sites have revealed carbonized rice grains or rice with husks， along with a certain quantity of weeds. The presence of weed seeds， which grow alongside rice， indirectly reflects the condition of rice paddies during this period.

However， rice agriculture during this time had not yet achieved a dominant position. Many of the sites contain abundant remains of edible wild plants， suggesting that gathering wild plants remained a major source of food. For example， at the Jiahu site， remains of edible plants such as water chestnuts， lotus roots， and acorns were discovered. Additionally， animal archaeology shows that wild animals， especially deer， were the main source of animal remains， with domesticated pigs and dogs being relatively rare. This indicates that animal husbandry， which would later accompany agriculture， was still in its early stages.

In 2004， the Tianluoshan site， discovered near the Hemudu site， was dated using carbon-14 analysis to be between 6，000 and 7，000 years old. In addition to rice remains， the Tianluoshan site also yielded a large number of edible wild plants. This suggests that during the Hemudu culture period， represented by the Hemudu and Tianluoshan sites， rice agriculture was still in the process of being established. Although the Hemudu ancestors were engaged in rice farming， it had not yet fully replaced hunting and gathering as the primary economic activity.