Transformation and Education: Wang Yangming’s Teaching in Guizhou and the Rise of the Qian School*

Zhang Xinmin

Abstract: After his sudden enlightenment at Longchang in Guizhou, Wang Yangming delivered a series of lectures to two different targeted audiences, not only attracting a considerable number of local residents and thus transforming local habits and customs, but also cultivating a number of qualifi ed candidates for the imperial civil service examination, who in turn constituted the local backbone of Yangming Studies. Because of Wang Yangming’s efforts at transformation and education in Guizhou (Qian), his philosophy of the mind had a more direct influence on Guizhou scholars, who took the initiative in practicing the “unity of knowledge and action” and formed the Qian School with a galaxy of talents and outstanding representatives. They inherited the qualities of modesty and righteousness from Wang Yangming, successfully carried forward Wang’s teaching of intuitive knowledge, and pioneered the establishment of a regional branch of Yangming Studies. It is indispensable to include an objective analysis of the Qian School as an infl uential sub-school of mind, rooted in the border areas, when we research the regional distribution and intellectual-ecological structure of Yangming Studies, as well as the evolution of thought and scholarship in the Ming dynasty.

Keywords: Wang Yangming, Qian School, spread of Confucianism in the border areas, succession of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind

Introduction: Wang Yangming’s Philosophy Solidif ied at Longchang [Refer to page 45 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]

Wang Yangming’s 王陽明 (Wang Shouren 王守仁, 1472—1529) enlightenment at Longchang in 1508 has always been widely discussed. That is because this intellectual breakthrough was of great signifi cance not only for the thinker himself, but also for the entire intellectual history of the Ming dynasty (1368—1644), including the creation and development of the Qian School in the Qian area (roughly today’s Guizhou Province).

Longchang was a postal relay station administered by the Pacification Office of Guizhou, in which other ethnic groups outnumbered the Han people and the Confucian intellectual resources were contrastingly scarce and weak. The reason why Wang Yangming achieved enlightenment in this border area populated with non-Han ethnic groups, and developed his own teachings independent of those of Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130—1200), was related to the truth that this area was, to some extent, less infl uenced by the teachings of the Cheng—Zhu School. At least, lectures delivered by Wang Yangming, then station master of Longchang, were never denounced as “heterodox.” Wang Yangming made a positive effort to enlighten the people and pursue thedao道 (Way), not only appealing to a large number of ordinary people and thus transforming local habits and customs, but also cultivating many qualifi ed candidates for the imperial civil service examination and giving rise to an early regional branch of Yangming Studies. Therefore, neither the study of intellectual history nor the writing of academic history can ignore the development of the Qian School, which is of great historical importance even against the backdrop of the entire country.

Enlightenment and Lecturing: All Persons Are Eligible to Be Transformed [47]

The enlightenment at Longchang and the rise of the Qian School were indispensable to the complete structure of the annalistic narration of Yangming Studies in the Ming. Nevertheless, it is a pity that, maybe due to the lack of records in theCase Study of Confucian Scholars in the Ming Dynasty[明儒學(xué)案] authored by Huang Zongxi 黃宗羲 (1610—1695), researchers through the ages paid attention to Wang Yangming’s enlightenment at Longchang and relatively few of them were concerned with the Qian School and its members. However, if there were no reconstruction of the history of the Qian School and its scholarship, not only would the study of intellectual changes of Wang Yangming be incomplete, but the analysis of the overall form of the regional distribution of Yangming Studies would also be fragmentary.

After being completely enlightened at Longchang, Wang Yangming delivered a series of lectures, all of which were based on his own practical intellectual experience and attractive to the local Han and non-Han residents intermingling in the borderland. In fact, Longchang had become the center of dissemination of Confucian values in an area that was known for its predominantly non-Han population. Confucianism was per se greatly conducive to unity and order. For these reasons, Wang’s lectures were not only intellectually and academically signifi cant but also politically and socially valuable. In a word, Wang made a positive and effective effort to promote borderland and rural Confucianism in his time.

The entirety of Wang Yangming’s thought, theory, and scholarship throughout his life began with the enlightenment at Longchang. It was a trinity of merit, morality, and scholarship. No matter what Wang did, whether it was the “moral education applied to non-Han residents”1Qian Dehong 錢德洪, “Chronicle of Wang Yangming’s Life, Appendix I” [年譜附錄一], vol. 35 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming [王文成公全書], eds. Wang Xiaoxin 王曉昕 and Zhao Pinglue 趙平略 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 1519.or the “changes done to prevailing habits and customs,”2Zhang Tingyu 張廷玉 et al., “The Life of Wang Shouren” [王守仁傳], in vol. 195 of History of the Ming Dynasty [明史] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1974), 5160.it was always an intentional, active practice of life, as well as an effort to carry forward the cultural and spiritual tradition epitomized in Confucius’s teaching that education should be universally applied to all peoples without any discrimination. It was at Longchang that Wang fully grasped that “the Way of the sage is the perfection of my own nature”3Qian Dehong, “Chronicle of Wang Yangming’s Life, Part I” [年譜一], vol. 32 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1396.and, at the same time, implemented his idea that “all persons are eligible to be transformed”4Wang Shouren 王守仁, “An Essay on the Xiang Temple” [象祠記], in vol. 23 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1024.in applying the egalitarian spirit and methods to moral education. Wang’s endeavor established itself in the improvement of local tradition and customs, laid stress on the reconstruction of socialethical orders, and disseminated Confucian doctrines among ordinary residents in an easily understandable way. As a consequence, non-Han peoples, known for their very diff erent habits, customs, and rules, “gradually came to be on intimate terms with him.”5Qian, “Chronicle of Wang Yangming’s Life, Part I,” 1396.In view of this, it might be safe to say that Guizhou was “a place that had been morally transformed by Wang Yangming,”6Jiao Hong 焦竑, “Epitaph for Xiao Lianggan, Grand Master for Thorough Service and Left Commissioner of Provincial Administration Commission of Shaanxi” [通奉大夫陜西布政使司左布政使拙齋蕭公墓志銘], in vol. 31 of Writings of Zhanyuan [澹園集], ed. Li Jianxiong 李劍雄 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1999), 483.or “a barbarian fi eld where Wang once lived and transformed.”7Liu Dazhi 劉大直, “A Poem on the Setting of the Yangming Memorial Temple at the Longgang Academy” [“龍岡書院”入陽明祠詩], in vol. 6 of General Records of Guizhou [貴州通志], Jiajing edition (Guiyang: Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 2015), 274.

Education in Accordance with Students’ Aptitudes: Targeted at Both the Major and Minor Traditions [48]

Most importantly, in the face of local elite intellectuals and candidates for the imperial civil service examination, Wang Yangming, resorting to lectures setting forth Confucian doctrines, promoted and propagated fresh elements of his philosophy of the mind (xinxue心學(xué)), such as the unity of knowledge and action. For example, Wang attached great importance to aspiration in “Instructions for Disciples at Longchang” [教條示龍場諸生], penned by himself. Through various methods, he encouraged students to fi x their aspirations, to realize the value of the highest good in their inherent nature through all types of social practice, to manifest the free will and spiritual characteristics attributed to their inner life, and fi nally to reach the ultimate realm in which they could become persons of virtue and even sages. In terms of the strictness of such requirements and the loftiness of such hopes, Wang was clearly targeting scholars who were preparing for the imperial civil service examination.

The large-scale lectures delivered by Wang Yangming as station master of Longchang were usually held at Xingtan in the academy (to be discussed in the following sections). In normal times, Wang liked to lecture on Confucian doctrines whenever and wherever possible. No matter how many people attended his lectures, the thinker tried his best to teach students in accordance with their backgrounds and current affairs. Therefore, Wang’s lectures were appropriately lively, vivid, and interesting and thus they perfectly and practically embodied the principle of education in accordance with students’ aptitudes. Consequently, students had many opportunities to exchange their ideas with the master and could receive Wang’s corrective instructions at all times and places. Even in the early Qing (1644—1911), some gave heartfelt praise to Wang’s lectures in Guizhou, saying:

It was through Wang Yangming’s lectures that the teaching of Confucius was spread to a region with a predominantly non-Han population. There, people intensively studied Confucian teachings and painstakingly disseminated them. This endeavor continues to this day. Nowadays, in Guizhou, there are abundant well-educated persons, among whom the adults are known for their virtues and the youths for their academic attainments. How morally refi ned they are! How fl ourishing Confucian teaching is!8Tian Wen 田雯 and Luo Shuqin 羅書勤, eds., Book of Qian [黔書], vol. II, in Compilation of the Book of Qian, Sequel to the Book of Qian, the Records of Qian, and the Discourses of Qian [黔書·續(xù)黔書·黔記·黔語] (Guiyang: Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1992), 91.

It is evident that Wang’s lectures did exert a deep and far-reaching infl uence on Guizhou.

The heuristic method by which disciples and their master could engage in inspiring dialogues was widely adopted by Wang Yangming in his lectures at Longchang. In fact, Wang used this method to propagate his teaching throughout his life. Liang Qichao 梁啟超 (1873—1929) especially noted, “The Master (i.e., Wang Yangming) had given his best performance on the extension of intuitive knowledge (zhi liangzhi致良知) and his disciples made remarkable progress in furthering their Master’s teaching.”9Liang Qichao 梁啟超, “Grasping Essence” [知本], in References for Moral Education [德育鑒] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2015), 28.Some even held that the teaching on the extension of intuitive knowledge that was developed by Wang in his twilight years should actually be traced back to his lectures at Longchang.10Wang Yangming said, “Since the days in Longchang, the meaning of the terminology liangzhi has been well established.” See Chan Wing-tsit 陳榮捷, “Gleanings Respecting Instructions for Practical Living” [傳習(xí)錄拾遺], in Instructions for Practical Living with Collected Annotations and Commentaries [王陽明傳習(xí)錄集注集評] (Taipei: Student Books, 1983), 396.Wang stressed that intuitive knowledge (liangzhi良知) itself was more insightful into the overall picture of original substance. Therefore, the unity of knowledge and action, which was treated as the philosophical principle of life practice and advocated in Wang’s academic endeavor in Guizhou, relied on the development and realization of intuitive knowledge, the thing-in-itself, of a metaphysical nature.

Wang Yangming, as station master of Longchang, taking into account the reality that there were both the major and minor traditions, conducted his educational practice without any distinction between classes or races. On the one hand, many Confucian values of universal nature were disseminated in the lower echelons of the countryside. In order to promote moral education according to existing local customs, Wang and his comrades did many jobs appreciated by ordinary people. By doing so, the social order of the borderland became increasingly similar to that of the Central Plains and the historical course in which the borderland changed and developed positively was pushed forward. On the other hand, Wang lectured on his philosophy of the mind in front of local elite intellectuals, at the same time cultivating talented people by awakening their minds and nature and leading them to practice what they were taught. As a consequence, a borderland center for the propagation of philosophy of the mind was created and extended to a greater area. The present author observes that the former prepared ecological conditions regarding cultural changes, such as social mood and psychological adaption, and the latter, on the basis of the former, fermented and shaped a regional branch of Yangming Studies. Thus, Guizhou turned into a place that was morally cultivated by Wang Yangming, who made a great effort to bring changes to local minds, habits, and customs. At the same time, it served as a testing fi eld of Yangming Studies, where Wang painstakingly inspired local elite intellectuals to have their own original mind and nature enlightened. In this sense, the present author concludes that the lectures and interactions performed by Wang at Longchang actually constituted a mutagenic agent triggering historical changes that should not be ignored when studying the intellectual development of Wang himself, the dissemination of Wang’s philosophy of the mind, and the rise of regional branches of Yangming Studies.

Popularity and Authority: The Increasing Infl uence of Wang’s Philosophy of the Mind [50]

After completely grasping the main thrust ofgewu zhizhi格物致知 (investigating things to extend knowledge), Wang Yangming delivered Confucian lectures on a large scale for local elite intellectuals. These lectures were mainly offered at two local Confucian academies, namely, the Longgang Academy and the Wenming Academy.

The Longgang Academy was a private academy where Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind was taught, significantly different from the teachings of Zhu Xi, including such novel theories of the time as “the mind as principle” and the “unity of knowledge and action.” At that time, although Wang was the station master of Longchang, he had “so much free time that he could deliver lectures at will.”11Sun Xichang 孫熙昌, “Monument Uttering Nostalgia” [去思碑], ed. Yan Yinliang 嚴(yán)寅亮, appendix 2 of Collected Works of Yan Xiu [嚴(yán)修集], eds. Chen Xin 陳鑫 and Yang Chuanqing 楊傳慶 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2019), 928.The majority of the attendees of Wang’s lectures were elite intellectuals from diff erent regions. Even so, the number of ordinary Han and non-Han attendees from lower echelons of local society was not small.

The Wenming Academy was run by the government. Originally, Vice Censor of Education Intendant Mao Ke 毛科 (fl . 1478) wrote a letter to Wang Yangming and formally invited Wang to teach at this official academy. Wang politely declined Mao’s invitation several times. Finally, he, banished from the court and now a low-level offi cial working in Longchang, accepted the invitation and left for Guiyang, the provincial capital, where he lectured on Confucian scholarship for Guizhou’s candidates for the imperial civil service examination in the Wenming Academy superintended by the provincial authorities. Later, Mao left Guizhou. Xi Shu 席書 (1461—1527), who was Mao’s successor, continued Mao’s work, hoping that local candidates would be well educated by leading thinkers such as Wang. Therefore, according to the records,

[Xi Shu] made a special trip to Longchang, where he himself visited the Master (i.e., Wang Yangming) and invited him to continue to teach young intellectuals at the Wenming Academy. Thanks to Wang, at that time, Confucian scholars in Guiyang could learn fresh intellectual ideas and even Xi Shu had the opportunity to polish his own scholarship. To this day, whenever people in Guiyang say there are scholars who are accomplished in Confucianism, they will immediately mention Xi Shu. The role that Wang Yangming played in perfecting Xi’s scholarship should never be downplayed.12Xie Dongshan 謝東山, “Foreword to Farewell to Hu Xiaoshi” [送仰齋胡堯時(shí)序], in vol. 11 of General Records of Guizhou, Jiajing edition, 591.

That Xi Shu became one of Wang Yangming’s good companions in adversity has been widely recounted generation after generation.

The fact that Wang Yangming moved from the remarkably culturally different Longchang, a place that had a predominantly non-Han population and was administered by hereditary headmen, to Guiyang, the provincial city that served as the regional politicocultural center, and his unofficial academic lectures turned into an officially recognized endeavor to disseminate new Confucianism, indicated that Wang’s own life and survival had been significantly improved and the political pressure on him been reduced. In the Wenming Academy, where well-educated candidates for the imperial civil service examination were in the majority, Wang inevitably taught students his philosophy of the mind, which was obviously diff erent from the authoritative Confucian teachings of Zhu Xi required by the imperial examination. Due to Xi Shu’s support, Wang, who himself “fi rst made progress in profound doctrines through writing and later wrote in the light of these doctrines,”13Xi Shu 席書, “Letter to Wang Yangming” [與王陽明書], in vol. 5 of Collected Works of Xi Shu [元山文選], in book 76 of The First Collection of Miscellaneous Literatures Written in Ming [明別集叢刊·第一輯], ed. Shen Naiwen 沈乃文 (Hefei: Huangshan Publishing House, 2013), 499.could freely voice his thoughts and encourage students to study the Way of the sage all their lives.

Therefore, Wang Yangming’s lectures held at the Wenming Academy at Guiyang were of great historical and symbolic importance. Not only did these lectures mean that the very special, novel philosophy of the mind, which was widely diff erent from the teachings of Zhu Xi, spread rapidly into more regions and the number and scale of educational endeavors increase dramatically; but they also demonstrated that the epoch-making rise of a new scholarship marked by Wang Yangming’s teachings had already existed since the emergence of the teaching embodied by Lu Jiuyuan 陸九淵 (1139—1193), and this rise was so strong that the new theory was soon recognized by the provincial government standing in for the imperial court. That is to say, the dreary intellectual world shrouded in the orthodox, authoritative Confucian teaching had made a breakthrough in taking a breath of fresh air from the borderland.

Cultivation of Elites: Face-to-Face Instruction and Wide Dissemination of the Theory on the Unity of Knowledge and Action [53]

At fi rst, Wang Yangming delivered unoffi cial lectures on New Confucianism at the Longgang Academy. Then, he was offi cially invited to lecture on Confucian doctrines at the Guiyangbased, government-run Wenming Academy. Guiyang was the politico-cultural center of Guizhou and thus became an ideal place for promoting and propagating Wang’s philosophy of the mind. For these reasons, the number of disciples instructed by Wang and the scale of Wang’s educational endeavor increased remarkably. At that time, “Guizhou resident students, coming from far and near with food, found ways and means to attend Wang’s lectures.”14General Records of Guizhou, Jiajing edition, vol. 9, 419.Wang and his scholarship became increasingly socially infl uential, “so the students were attracted to him and moved by his virtue and his infl uence came into vogue,”15Qian, “Chronicle of Wang Yangming’s Life, Appendix I,” 1516.among which many were local elite intellectuals. Thus, the Qian School can be said to commence at the Longgang Academy,16Fu Zhenzhao 傅振照, A Chronicle of Li Ciming’s Life [李慈銘年譜] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2016), 473.and to begin to build up steam at the Wenming Academy.

The scale of Wang’s lectures delivered at the Wenming Academy was so large that “hundreds of local scholars sat around the altar and listened attentively, thereby exposing people in Guizhou to the teaching of the mind and human nature.”17General Records of Guizhou, Wanli edition, vol. 2 (Guiyang: Guizhou University Press, 2010), 34.Even compared with Wang’s later intensive lectures in Chuzhou (in today’s Anhui Province) and Yuezhou (present Shaoxing of Zhejiang Province), his endeavor in Guizhou does not pale in the slightest way. Looking back at the history of Guizhou, extending from the Han dynasty (206 BCE—220 BC) to the Ming dynasty, there had not been any lectures that fl ourished more than Wang’s. Even when Wang was busily engaged in warfare, he still set apart a little time for lectures. Of course, in a strict sense, the history of his lectures devoted to the theory of the mind and human nature must take his enlightenment at Longchang as their time coordinate and proceed from the time when Wang was station master.

Among the attendees of Wang’s lectures, there were a number of curious ordinary residents apart from those scholars “moved by his virtue.” One piece of a poem penned by Wang Yangming, who then was station master of Longchang, corroborates this, saying:

I chat with two or three persons in my spare time,

Wearing thin clothes since the weather is getting warmer in late spring.

Literally lecturing on texts and answering examination questions, if these are not my business,

Then who is investigating and realizing the Way?

Tender grasses at the foot of steps restore their greenness after a little rain;

While young peach trees under the eaves become fresher in the sun.

Sitting, walking, and poetizing are all part of practical learning;

And we must carefully treat even the most minimal things.18Wang Shouren 王守仁, “A Poem to Disciples Written in Spring with Blooming Flowers” [春日花間偶集示門生], in vol. 19 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 856.

Those who were instructed by Wang himself would always and everywhere accompany him, in addition to attending the large parties and lectures. “Two or three persons” in the above poem indicates that the number of such disciples was not huge. Wang, taking into account differences existing in the basic nature of disciples, flexibly applied his instruction to students. Sometimes, he provided students with direct, corrective instructions. Sometimes, he gave them subtle directions. In all cases, Wang stressed the effort of gaining insight into the mind and inherent nature, advocating the fundamental practical principle that the “unity of knowledge and action” is both substance and function.19See Zhang Xinmin 張新民, “The Essence of Wang Yangming’s Practical Philosophy: A Study Centered on Wang Yangming’s Enlightenment at Longchang and the Establishment of His Philosophy of the Mind” [論王陽明實(shí)踐哲學(xué)的精義——以“龍場悟道”及心學(xué)的發(fā)生學(xué)形成過程為中心], Zhejiang Social Sciences [浙江社會科學(xué)], no. 7 (2018), 122—138.In this sense, Wang was more than a private tutor in a home school who obstinately adhered to Confucian texts and cared for nothing but literally repeating texts and answering examination questions.

Extensive Education and Pleasant Companionship: The Size of the Qian School [55]

As early as the Wanli period (1573—1620) of the Ming dynasty, Guo Zizhang 郭子章 (1543—1618) said with emotion, “It was when Wang Yangming was banished from the court and worked at Longchang that the Confucian community of Guizhou began to rise. At that time, the dialogues between the Master and disciples were conducted anonymously.”20Guo Zizhang 郭子章, Records of Qian [黔記], vol. 45, ed. Zhao Pinglue 趙平略 (Chengdu: Southwest Jiaotong University Press, 2016), 981.Such anonymity seriously affected the objective evaluation of the Qian School. Take Yu Chongyao’s 余重耀 (1876—1954)Collected Memoirs of Disciples of Wang Yangming[陽明弟子傳纂], for example. Although the number of Wang’s disciples recorded by Yu was not small, he listed only three, Tang Xu 湯冔 (Tang Boyuan 湯伯元, fl . 1516—1521), Ye Wu 葉梧 (Ye Zicang 葉子蒼, fl. 1513), and Chen Wenxue 陳文學(xué) (Chen Zonglu 陳宗魯, fl. 1506—1516), as Qian School members instructed personally by Wang, merely following Qian Dehong’s 錢德洪 (1496—1574)Chronicle of Wang Yangming’s Life[王陽明年譜].

The life of Wang Yangming indicates that the thinker paid the greatest attention to his lectures. It is said that, across the country, “at that time there were no less than three thousand of Wang Yangming’s disciples who had visited the Master in person and strongly believed in his teaching.”21Wang Zongmu 王宗沐, “Preface to the Illustrated Biograph of Master Wang Yangming” [王陽明先生圖譜序], in appendix 2 of Illustrated Biograph of Master Wang Yangming [王陽明圖傳], by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 and Zou Shouyi 鄒守益 (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2017), 226.In Guizhou, there must be more of Wang’s disciples with an established identity. Fortunately, when Wang Yangming left Guizhou for Luling of Jiangxi, where he had a new offi ce, he wrote letters to his Guizhou disciples in Zhenyuan, a place for transfer. Though not included in theComplete Works of Wang Yangming[王文成公全書], the authentic letters are extant.22For the most precise investigation of titles, texts, and circulation of these letters, please see Yan Pingfan 閆平凡, “The Textual Criticism of Wang Yangming’s Correspondence Written in Zhenyuan” [《鎮(zhèn)遠(yuǎn)旅邸書札》考略], Journal of Yangming Studies [陽明學(xué)刊], no. 8 (2016): 92—106.According to these letters, apart from the aforementioned three identifi ed disciples, there were some other Guizhou disciples with ascertainable names such as Zhang Shiyu 張時(shí)裕, He Zipei 何子佩, Yue Wenshi 越文實(shí), Zou Jinren 鄒近仁, Fan Xiyi 范希夷, Hao Shengzhi 郝升之, Wang Yuanming 汪原銘, Li Weishan 李惟善, Chen Liangchen 陳良臣, Yi Fuzhi 易輔之, Zhan Liangchen 詹良臣, Wang Shichen 王世臣, Li Liangchen 李良臣, Yuan Bangyan 袁邦彥, Gao Mingfeng 高鳴鳳, He Tingyuan 何廷遠(yuǎn), and Chen Shou 陳壽.23Wang Shouren, “Authentic Calligraphies of Wang Yangming” [明王文成倪文正尺牘真跡卷], in vol. 4 of Yuexue Pavilion Anthology of Paintings and Calligraphies [岳雪樓書畫錄], by Kong Guangtao 孔廣陶, in Guoyun Pavilion Records of the Paintings and Calligraphies and Yuexue Pavilion Anthology of Paintings and Calligraphies [過云樓書畫 記·岳雪樓書畫錄], ed. Liu Xiangchun 柳向春 (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2011), 502—503.Of course, these letters could not include all the names of Wang’s disciples in Guizhou. Even so, such correspondence is a remedy for the lack of relevant records. In terms of the size of the community of Wang’s disciples in Guizhou, it could not be easily outdone by its counterparts throughout the country (as recorded inCollected Memoirs of Disciples of Wang Yangming).

When Wang Yangming was leaving Guiyang, he composed a poem titled “Disciples See Me off at Longli” [諸門人送至龍里道中], which includes the lines: “Pathways, high and low, lead to the bewilderment of mountains; / And I feel ashamed since all these worthies go so far and see me off . / Clouds befogging the brook make my mood gloomier; / And snow blowing down from the mountains beats my clothes and greys hair at the temples.”24Wang Shouren, “Disciples See Me off at Longli” [諸門人送至龍里道中], in vol. 29 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1239.In his letters penned at Zhenyuan, Wang especially mentioned the disciples seeing him off and extended his thanks to all his talented friends of virtue. Obviously, disciples referred to students who came from afar and saw him off at Longli, whereas friends referred to candidates who got instruction from him and successfully passed the provincial civil service examination in that year. Traditionally, among successful candidates from the borderland, many were of low birth. Despite this, they rose to prominence as Confucians, renowned for their mastery of Wang’s philosophy of the mind,and fi nally set up a great regional Confucian school. Wang Yangming’s instruction and direction were indispensable to their success.

Among Wang Yangming’s disciples in Guizhou, some were not natives but were attracted to Guiyang from other provinces by Wang’s reputation. For example, according to Wang’s poem “Advice Given to Zhu Keming Returning to the South” [贈朱克明南歸言], there were two brothers Zhu Guangji 朱光霽 (Zhu Keming 朱克明, 1495—1570) and Zhu Guangbi 朱光弼 who followed him.25Wang Shouren, “Advice Given to Zhu Keming Returning to the South” [贈朱克明南歸言], in vol. 6 of Prefectural Records of Menghua, Kangxi Edition [康熙蒙化府志], in Selected Cultural and Historical Documents of Dali in Yunnan [云南大理文史資料選輯] (Dali: Culture Bureau of Daili Bai Autonomous Prefecture, 1983), 290.Textual criticism indicates that the two brothers were fathered by Zhu Ji 朱璣 (fl . 1487—1513), who came from southern Yunnan and was then promoted to be surveillance commissioner of Guizhou. As soon as Wang Yangming arrived in Guizhou, Zhu Ji invited him to write an essay “On Reconstructing Moon Lake Temple and Renovating the Mansion” [重修月潭寺建公館記], in which Wang praised that what Zhu did conformed to the politics of thejunzi君子 (morally superior person).

The Zhu clan was very prominent in Yunnan. It always adhered to the teaching of intuitive knowledge and carried forward Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind. The bridging role that members of the Zhu clan, who were usually elites of importance to Yunnan, played in turning Yangming Studies into an indispensable spiritual resource benefi tting southwest China should not be neglected.

Priority Given to Grand Aspiration: The Qian School Yangming Scholars’ Eff ort in the Learning of the Sage [57]

When Wang Yangming was lecturing in Guiyang, he strongly objected to using the imperial civil service examination as nothing but a utilitarian tool for entering politics and stressed that even political aspirations must be based on the ultimate goal of morally perfecting oneself and governance, and they must be directed at improving state politics and harmonizing the entire world. Wang emphatically said, “Knowledge is the beginning of action and action is the completion of knowledge. The learning of the sage involves only one effort. Knowledge and action should not be separated as two things.”26Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living I” [傳習(xí)錄上], vol. 1 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 18. The English translation is based on Chan Wing-tsit’s version, 30, with some alterations.Therefore, Wang, always and everywhere, reminded students and disciples that they must study the Way of the sage and adhere to the ultimate goal of learning to be a sage.

The core of the learning of the sage was giving rise to the original mind and human nature. Therefore, Wang especially wrote a poem admonishing Chen Wenxue that “skills of writing should not be prioritized.”27Wang Shouren, “Advice Given to Chen Zonglu ” [贈陳宗魯], in vol. 29 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1239.This was a kindly admonition to Chen, that his obsessing with literary writings should not have an impact on the prioritized effort of becoming a sage or a worthy person, nor should it impede the practice of extending knowledge, nor should one deviate from the ultimate goal of the learning of the sage. Wang’s advice inevitably led disciples to be intellectually enlightened.

Ye Wu was another example. Ye once served as instructor in Hunan’s Xinhua County and had a close association with Xu Ai 徐愛 (1487—1518), one of Wang’s most prominent disciples. In one letter to Ye, Wang Yangming stressed,

In ancient times, those who were of humble origins and entered politics never acted despicably merely because of their lower positions. You should do the same. If you can achieve by extending what you have been taught to others and help local residents ruminate over what they see, you will be really worthy of the position. Furthermore, for those senior officials at present, how many of them can successfully avoid being sarcastically called impotent persons receiving high emoluments without merits?28Wang Shouren, “Letter to Ye Zicang” [寄葉子蒼], in vol. 1 of A New Sequel Edition to Collected Writings of Master Wang Yangming [新刊陽明先生文錄續(xù)編], ed. Zhang Xinmin (Guiyang: Confucian Academy Press, 2020), 143—144.

It is evident that Wang, who tutored Ye, had given much thought to this.

In “Given to Zhu Keming Returning to South,” a poem mentioned above, Wang Yangming asserted that the most important aspect of study lay in “transforming one’s physical nature.” For example, as Wang said,

Those who have not fully engaged themselves in study are by disposition rude, avaricious, mean, boastful, absurd, conceited, arrogant, frivolous, and restless. As soon as they carefully study [and transform their physical nature], their rudeness will be turned into gentleness, their avariciousness and meanness into incorruptness and frankness, their boastfulness and absurdness into faithfulness and trustworthiness, their conceitedness and arrogance into moderateness and reservedness, and their frivolousness and restlessness into discreetness and calmness.29Wang Shouren, “Advice Given to Zhu Keming Returning to the South,” 290.

Transforming one’s physical nature was an act of self-transformation, and thus it could defi nitely be integrated into the ultimate goal of being a sage. Wang’s advice was applied not only to the Zhu brothers but also to the entirety of the disciples following him in Guizhou.

The Printing of Wang’s Works: Spreading Academic Resources Regionwide [59]

When Wang Yangming was about to leave Guizhou, he said in one of his letters: “The printing block made of pear wood should be well packed to prevent its being lost, because there is the need to print a booklet.”30Wang Shouren, “Authentic Calligraphies of Wang Yangming,” 503.The “booklet” referred to theCollection When Living among Barbarians[居夷集] printed in Guizhou. The time of the production of this book antedated the 1524 edition by Qiu Yanghao 丘養(yǎng)浩 (b. 1496). Its printing and circulation in Guizhou, where Wang achieved enlightenment himself, not only indicated that Wang himself underwent a long, changing journey inward there but also shed light on the overall background of the rise of the Qian School. In view of this, it has to be said that the publication and circulation of this book was a great event in the development of the philosophy of the mind in the southwest borderland.

Aside fromLiving and Thinking in Guizhou, there were at least three printed works circulating in Guizhou, namely,Instructions for Practical Living[傳習(xí)錄],Collected Works of Master Wang Yangming[陽明先生文錄], andA New Sequel Edition of Master Wang Yangming’s Writings[新刊陽明先生文錄續(xù)編], all of which were produced by disciples who had been directly instructed by Wang in person. The production and circulation of these works were fruits of the concerted effort made by non-native officials working in Guizhou and local scholars of the Qian School. All these works were reprinted repeatedly. The local authorities distributed them regionwide. As a consequence, these works were widely read in almost all prefectures and counties under the jurisdiction of the Provincial Administration Commission and even in some areas headed by indigenous chieftains. This demonstrated that Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind had already spread to a much greater area and thus prepared “good soil” and “an amiable climate” for the significant growth of the Qian School.

The dissemination of the Qian School with Wang’s philosophy of the mind through a large-scale reproduction of Wang’s works showed that the academic exchange between borderland scholars of the philosophy of the mind became increasingly active and frequent. It also showed that officials in Guizhou generally recognized and supported Wang Yangming’s teaching. The overall characteristics of the emergence and evolution of the local Qian School should not be neglected in studying academic and cultural phenomena.

It is worth stressing thatLiving and Thinking in Guizhouwas written and printed in Guizhou, and the book itself focused on Guizhou. For native Guizhou scholars and direct disciples of Wang Yangming in particular, whenever they opened the book, they would immediately feel it as familiar and grasp its sense, as if the spirit of their master perennially stayed in the mountains and earth of Guizhou. Seemingly, there was nothing intervening in the spiritual and intellectual interactions of Wang Yangming and his Guizhou disciples, who visited their master’s former residences, emotionally recollected what their master had done there, and thoughtfully ran their hands over posthumous collections of their master’s works, no matter whether or not their master lived in Guizhou, left Guizhou, was still alive, or had passed away.

Passing the Torch: The Creation of the Qian Learning of Confucianism to Carry Forward the Teaching of Intuitive Knowledge [61]

Of course, as successors of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind, the Qian School scholars and those officials promoting Wang’s teachings should place more emphasis on “having their veneration of Wang Yangming embodied in implementing hisdaoand admiring his teaching from the heart rather than indulging in fl ights of fancy while laying aside his teaching.”31Wang Xing 王杏, “Yangming Academy” [陽明書院], in vol. 6 of General Records of Guizhou, Jiajing edition, 275.Therefore, although early members of the Qian School who studied under Wang’s direct instruction produced a few academic monographs and did not make a great contribution in terms of theory and thought, they strictly adhered to Wang’s teachings on the unity of knowledge and action. That is, they attached equal importance to the awareness that manifests truth, the original spirit of one’s own life, and the practice that benefi ts society and the people. Such awareness was indispensable to practice. Awareness and practice could not be separated from each other at all. This was surely the teaching suggesting “people put into practice what they advocate.”32Liu Bingren 劉秉仁, “Essay on New Confucian Institutes in Bijie Garrison ” [畢節(jié)衛(wèi)新遷儒學(xué)記], in vol. 21 of General Annals of Guizhou, Wanli edition, 394.Members of the Qian School epitomized these doctrines.

Broadly speaking, the creation of the regional Qian School or “the emergence of the Qian Learning of Confucianism (qianxue黔學(xué)) should be attributed to the effort made by Wang Yangming.”33Weng Tongshu 翁同書, preface to Prefectural Records of Guiyang [貴陽府志], Daoguang edition, eds. Zhou Zuoji 周作楫 and Zhu Desui 朱德璲 (Guiyang: Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 2005), 3.The Qian Learning of Confucianism refers specifi cally to teaching that advocates Confucian doctrines guiding people to be as virtuous as sages were. In this sense, it is safe to say that “in the three hundred years extending from the Ming to the Qing, it was really because of Wang Yangming’s endeavor that people in Guizhou gradually grasped what the learning of the sage was.”34Zhang Xia 張轄, “Essay on Newly-Built Yangming Temple” [新建陽明祠記], in Chronicles of Guiyang: Cultural Relics [貴陽市志·文物志], ed. Municipal Editorial Committee of Chronicles of Guiyang (Guiyang: Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1993), 157,Among the fi rst generation of the Qian School, Chen Wenxue , Tang Xu, and Ye Wu were known as the former three worthies, who were succeeded by the latter three worthies consisting of Sun Ying’ao 孫應(yīng)鰲 (1527—1584), Li Wei 李渭 (1514—1588) and Ma Tingxi 馬廷錫 (fl . 1540—1571), all of whom were representative fi gures of the second generation of the Qian School.

So far there are very few records about Ye Wu among the former three worthies. For this reason, the present author does not discuss him here. Chen Wenxue, who was discontented with the corrupt offi cialdom of his time, chose to “retire from politics on the pretext of recuperating. He remained indiff erent to all political affairs. Whenever he had free time, he immediately immersed himself in the learning of the sage.”35Guo, “The Life of Chen Wenxue, Subprefectural Magistrate of Yaozhou” [耀州知州陳文學(xué)傳], in vol. 47 of Records of Qian, 1004.In terms of Chen’s learning of the sage, he was obviously deeply inspired by Wang Yangming’s enlightenment at Longchang. According to one record,

He sat quietly all day long, memorizing words of the ancient sages and having them corroborated by what the Master (i.e., Wang Yangming) taught. Occasionally, he partook in some artistic activities such as calligraphy, or discussed poetry with guests. He did everything as he pleased, never going a moment without cultivating himself.36Mo Youzhi 莫友芝, “An Annotated Biography of Governor Tang Boyuan” [太守湯伯元先生冔傳證], in vol. 3 of An Outlined History of Guizhou Poetry [黔詩紀(jì)略], in book 9 of Complete Works of Mo Youzhi [莫友芝全集] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2017), 157.

Evidently, for Chen, poetry was an outlet for thought and criticism against politics. In the case of Tang Xu, when he headed the prefecture of Chaozhou, he “made fair, just judgments, as many as possible, and never had a hand in the very profitable affairs of taxation.” Unfortunately, although Tang himself was indisputably upright, he had to “l(fā)eave the offi ce due to others’ slanders.”37Guo, “The Life of Tang Xu, Prefect of Chaozhou” [潮州知府湯冔傳], in vol. 46 of Records of Qian, 989.It was very clear that Tang was an incorruptible official. Tang implemented Wang Yangming’s unity of knowledge and action in practice throughout his life and thus became an epitome of the Confucian teaching that people should practice what they advocate. In terms of conduct, Tang and Chen were similar to each other in abiding by the most basic Confucian codes and rules.

Comparatively, the fi rst generation of Qian School scholars was much less productive, intellectually and academically, than those of the second generation, especially the later three worthies, who were regarded by Guo Zizhang as representative figures of Neo-Confucianism. Even so, the essence of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind and even the entirety of traditional Confucianism was practice. With benevolence (ren仁) and intuitive knowledge as the original substance, this living, realistic human practice put into effect what the sage taught, which was indispensable to Confucianism. Thus, the historical bridging role that the first generation of Qian School Yangming scholars played in their effort to implement the teachings of Wang Yangming was not negligible. Precisely because of this, Zou Hanxun 鄒漢勛 (1805—1854), one of the Qing dynasty gurus of traditional Chinese scholarship, gave them high praise:

Chen Zonglu and Tang Boyuan were all directly tutored by Wang Yangming, so that they collaboratively founded the Confucian school of Guizhou in the south. Chen grasped the concept of modesty taught by Wang and at the same time, he was good at writing. Tang knew well Wang’s doctrine of righteousness and practiced it in political affairs. Although fi nally Chen had to retire from politics because of others’ slanders, this did not bring even the slightest harm to him.38Prefectural Records of Guiyang, Daoguang edition, vol. 70, 1297.

From the perspective of the early rise of the Qian School, such a comment objectively conforms to historical reality.

Echoing Zou Hanxun, Mo Youzhi 莫友芝 (1811—1871), a famous scholar who was born in Guizhou, noted that Qian School scholars:

[S]trived for grasping knowledge and gaining insight into the mind and human nature. Chen Zonglu and Tang Boyuan were the most mentionable. Chen understood well the modesty of Wang Yangming and Tang had the righteousness of Wang Yangming digested, and they successfully applied their understandings to writing and politics.

Mo fully affirmed that “Chen and Tang laid the foundation of the Qian Learning of Confucianism by carrying forward Wang Yangming’s teaching of intuitive knowledge” and contended that the two scholars’ achievements in writing were insuffi cient to manifest how signifi cant their work was.39Mo, “An Annotated Biography of Governor Tang Boyuan,” 156—157.Thus, it can be concluded that the emergence of the early Qian School should be attributed to Wang Yangming’s direct disciples, among whom the former three worthies made the greatest contribution. In fact, Qing dynasty scholars had long reached a consensus regarding this.

Wang Yangming made a lifetime effort to lecture on his philosophy of the mind nationwide. His endeavor commenced in his days in Guizhou. Then, as he traveled extensively and his thought spread to more regions, the number of his disciples increased constantly. It might be said that Wang had disciples all over the country. Nevertheless, since the branches of Yangming Studies multiplied greatly, there were inevitably many disadvantages. Despite this, the Qian School exceptionally preserved well the true meanings of modesty and righteousness advocated by Wang Yangming.

Representative Yangming scholars of the Qian School were Chen Wenxue, Tang Xu, and Ye Wu, all of whom adhered to their master’s teaching, attached the same importance to practice and inner cultivation, and spent much time and energy polishing their minds, and finally became more spiritually simple and unadorned. With their personalities and scholarship conforming to the way of modesty and righteousness, a criterion for Yangming followers, they brought about changes in which local habits and customs were perfected in practice. Thanks to these scholars, Yangming Studies became known for its inquiry into the mind, human nature, and intuitive knowledge, and had the opportunity to set up its regional branch for the fi rst time. The work of the pioneers of the Qian School in developing borderland Confucianism should be fully recognized, even though they themselves were indeed over-obedient to established rules and much less intellectually creative.

Bibliography for Cited Translations

Chan, Wing-tsit, trans.Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-Ming. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.