我見證的中國核能發(fā)展歷程

文/Bernard Bigot 譯/張佳藝

在過去半個世紀中，談及經(jīng)濟領域或全球科技領域的領先地位，中國的發(fā)展堪稱奇跡。對于任何一個國家來說，如此迅猛地實現(xiàn)從發(fā)展中國家到工業(yè)化國家的蛻變都是非常了不起的；對于人口眾多的中國來說，這種蛻變可謂現(xiàn)代歷史上最偉大的成就之一。

能源在經(jīng)濟發(fā)展和工業(yè)化領域發(fā)揮重要作用，當然也在中國的高速發(fā)展中發(fā)揮了關鍵作用。我很榮幸為此盡了一點綿薄之力，特別是在用于發(fā)電的核裂變方面以及正在進行中的氫核聚變研究與開發(fā)方面。這既是雙邊作用即維系中法伙伴關系的一部分，也是多邊作用即構建國際組織關系的一部分。在相關開發(fā)中，我擁有“前排座席”。無論作為行動者也好，還是觀察者也好，我都非常珍惜其中的互動。

見證中國和平核事業(yè)穩(wěn)步發(fā)展的非凡歷程

理解中國的核能發(fā)展是如何初具規(guī)模的，是一定要考慮到其形成年代的。在很多人看來，關鍵里程碑是1985年中國第一座核電站在秦山的開工建造。但我覺得要更久遠一些。早在20世紀70年代，中國就已經(jīng)認真考慮發(fā)展民用核能項目了。與此同時，中法兩國在科技領域的關系逐漸穩(wěn)固。這或許可以追溯到1973年法國總統(tǒng)喬治·蓬皮杜首次訪華。

從某種意義上說，法國同中國的關系從早期起就呈現(xiàn)這種模式，或者說特點。中國渴望獲得法國已有的先進技術，使自身成為一個合理的出口市場和發(fā)展中國家的合作伙伴。在核能領域，這聚焦于中國穩(wěn)步掌握和平利用核能的全方位能力，擁有質(zhì)量和安全方面的最高標準和有力監(jiān)管制度。隨著時間的推移，這將順理成章地推動中國提高技術能力與國內(nèi)產(chǎn)能，最終建立起中國大規(guī)模的核工人隊伍、部件制造能力和自給自足的核工業(yè)。

法國很快就意識到了與擁有巨大潛力的中國長期合作的好處與機遇。1982年，中國核工業(yè)部與法國原子能和替代能源委員會簽訂的“中法和平利用核能合作議定書”正式生效。該議定書在隨后幾十年的持久效力印證了它啟動的實質(zhì)性的伙伴關系。我很欣慰，回顧我于2009年到2015年擔任法國原子能和替代能源委員會主席和首席執(zhí)行官的這段時間，這一協(xié)議不斷更新。隨后，2019年3月，習近平主席訪法期間簽署了第十三份“中法和平利用核能合作議定書”。議定書迄今已有40年的歷史，且仍在蓬勃發(fā)展。

在首次簽署這一基本議定書后不久，1983年簽署了第二份重在實用性的“核電合作備忘錄”。借此，法國同意與位于廣東的電力供應商中國廣核集團合作，并提供四個900兆瓦的壓水反應堆，在大亞灣建造兩個機組，在嶺澳建造另外兩個機組。兩項合作分別于1993年和1994年開始商業(yè)運行，這也是接下來許多合作的開始。

顯然，中國從一開始就有合乎情理的雄心壯志，盡可能多地向全球的合作伙伴學習，從而完善自己“本土”的核電技術與能力。因此，除法國的法馬通壓水堆設計之外，中國同時尋找其他合作伙伴也就不足為奇了。第一批投放到中國的加拿大CANDU反應堆于2002年落地，幾年后，俄羅斯VVER反應堆也在中國投入運行。這兩個反應堆均是與法國電力公司在臺山建造的，并在2018年和2019年正式開始運行。

有了這些不斷積累的知識和經(jīng)驗，中國政府在2014年委托中國核工業(yè)集團開發(fā)出第一個完全由中國設計的第三代反應堆——“中國龍”，即華龍一號或HPR-1000。這一設計是多部門合作的結果，涉及17所中國大學和研究機構、58家國有企業(yè)和140多家私營公司，以確保所有核心部件都能在中國制造。作為一家中國企業(yè)，加之很大程度上源于法國的技術合作，華龍公司現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)在中國的核電戰(zhàn)略中占據(jù)了應有的地位。

就個人而言，我懷著喜悅與欽佩的心情見證了中國和平核事業(yè)穩(wěn)步發(fā)展的這一非凡歷程。早期，當我被要求帶領由法國相關政府機構和法國電力公司、阿?，m等公司組成的法國代表團與中國同行互動與合作時，中國的和平核事業(yè)就已經(jīng)在穩(wěn)步發(fā)展了。在我擔任法國駐國際原子能機構的理事期間，多邊合作形式也在踐行著。作為一個可靠的合作伙伴，中國自然可以穩(wěn)步崛起。

當然，這種驚人的發(fā)展絕不僅限于核能。電力經(jīng)常被稱為經(jīng)濟增長的載體。幾十年來，我多次訪問北京和中國其他許多城市，沒有比我的所見所聞更好的例子了。中國的城市天際線、現(xiàn)代機場、高鐵服務和許多其他技術領域的驚人演變每年都在繼續(xù)，每進行一次新的訪問都會發(fā)現(xiàn)一次驚人發(fā)展。在可觀的投資和合作的支持下，中國這個“發(fā)展中國家伙伴”出現(xiàn)了，躋身成為全球主導力量的一員。

因此，中國核電項目的現(xiàn)狀既是中國整體現(xiàn)代化和科技進步的反映，也是其支撐力量。中國有52臺機組投入使用，另有20臺機組正在建設中。中國無疑是全球核電擴張最活躍的國家之一。2020年，中國的核電產(chǎn)量首次超越法國（僅次于美國）。如果繼續(xù)每年建造6—8座新核電站的計劃，中國的核電裝機容量將于2035年達到150GWe。

令我特別欣慰的是，盡管中國國內(nèi)產(chǎn)能出現(xiàn)了前所未有的增長，但中法數(shù)十年合作所奠定的基礎仍繼續(xù)為中國的法國中小型企業(yè)發(fā)揮作用。以法國電力公司為中心的法中電力協(xié)會的大約90個聯(lián)合成員，將繼續(xù)為中國核電行業(yè)的持續(xù)發(fā)展和運營提供服務和維護，并通常通過合資企業(yè)為這些法國公司大幅拓展市場。這一系列持續(xù)穩(wěn)定的關系令人信服其合作和互補增長的互利性。

除了核電站，中法合作還延伸到整個核燃料循環(huán)的廣泛領域

中國的下一步按理來說就是出口。首批完全“中國制造”的華龍反應堆已在福清和鳳城港投入使用，另有六個機組授權在漳州、惠州和昌江建造。與此同時，三個國際項目也在穩(wěn)步推進：在英國，監(jiān)管機構于2022年2月通過了HPR-1000反應堆的通用設計評估；在巴基斯坦，兩個HPR-1000反應堆已經(jīng)在卡拉奇成功安裝，最近的一個于2022年3月并網(wǎng)，另有三個機組尚在規(guī)劃中；在阿根廷，加拿大和中國正在共同制訂計劃，擬建造一個CANDU和一個華龍機組。

其他國際項目無疑也將隨之而來，例如在巴西、捷克共和國和肯尼亞定期報告的討論則正在進行中。中國有條不紊地推進標準化和成本效益，同時嚴格恪守安全和質(zhì)量標準，這為其作為先進技術可靠出口國的聲譽增添了可信度。中國核工業(yè)集團擬創(chuàng)建一個新反應堆設計，即華龍二號，使其成本大大降低，并將建造時間從5年縮短為4年。這大概會引起國際社會的興趣。

除核電站外，中法合作還延伸到整個核燃料循環(huán)的廣泛研發(fā)領域，尤其強調(diào)法國在后處理和廢物處理方面的先進技術。在這一合作領域，歷史也很重要。20世紀90年代，當我在法國研究部擔任科技團團長（1993—1996年）、研究與技術總干事（1996—1997年）和研究部副主任（1998—2000年）等不同職務時，如前文所述，中國支持法國電力公司合資企業(yè)和法國核工業(yè)在中國的部署，這在很大程度上是通過法國原子能和替代能源委員會作為培訓行動來實施的。

隨著中國的核科學與核能力不可阻擋的發(fā)展，未來20年的重點也相應轉移了。首先是設計和建造一個100%本土化的中國核電站，然后是更廣泛的多樣化研發(fā)。2018年，當埃馬紐埃爾·馬克龍總統(tǒng)對北京進行國事訪問時，中國與阿海琺簽署了一份重要的商業(yè)協(xié)議備忘錄，意在建立一個核燃料后處理廠。這代表了中國的一個戰(zhàn)略選擇：與美國和其他大型核電用戶不同，中國釋放出采用法國模式的信號，即對廢舊核燃料進行后處理，回收鈾和钚以制造“混合氧化物”燃料，并對玻璃化裂變產(chǎn)物廢物進行地質(zhì)掩埋。這種對廢舊核燃料的再處理減少了中國對進口鈾的依賴，并延長了整個核電前景的壽命。

國際熱核聚變實驗堆(ITER)計劃法國總部（圖片來源：ITER官網(wǎng)）

科研人員在升級全超導托卡馬克核聚變實驗裝置（新華社記者金立旺 攝）

同樣，中國的研發(fā)已經(jīng)擴展到部署快中子反應堆和第四代反應堆，正在進行著各種類型的原型和演示工作：高溫氣冷反應堆、使用釷作為燃料的熔鹽反應堆、小型模塊化核電站、鉛鉍反應堆以及粒子加速器相關的亞臨界反應堆?？傮w而言，這些項目中的任何一個都可能不會被納入長期愿景，然而這些項目的龐大規(guī)模說明了中國通過伙伴關系和國內(nèi)研究而戰(zhàn)略性積累的專業(yè)知識，正在使中國搖身變?yōu)?1世紀杰出的核電領導者。

國際熱核聚變實驗堆為全人類謀福利

最后，我談談中國作為國際伙伴在全球努力中恪守氫聚變承諾的成長。核聚變能源像裂變一樣，是一個核過程，但物理學上是完全不同的。太陽和所有恒星是宇宙中最豐富的能源，也是地球上所有光和熱的來源。氫聚變是太陽和所有恒星的核心動力，提供了承載生命的環(huán)境。核聚變能源有許多優(yōu)點，為子孫后代提供了安全、環(huán)保和幾乎無限的能源。然而，事實證明，氫聚變能源的可控生產(chǎn)是一項具有挑戰(zhàn)性的工作。

在太陽的核心，由于極端的引力迫使氫核融合，核聚變產(chǎn)生了。因這種引力無法在地球上復制，科學家和工程師已經(jīng)研究了60多年利用核聚變能源的替代方法。最有希望的方法是磁約束核聚變。在這種方法中，低密度核聚變等離子體在一個被稱為托卡馬克的圓環(huán)形金屬室中產(chǎn)生，加熱到氫核達到發(fā)生核聚變所需的150度左右，反應會被一個精確成形的磁場控制和限制。

領先的國際氫核聚變的研究合作是位于法國南部的國際熱核聚變實驗堆（ITER）計劃。ITER是1985年由美國總統(tǒng)羅納德·里根和蘇共中央總書記米哈伊爾·戈爾巴喬夫所構想的一個旨在“為全人類謀福利”的項目。在隨后的幾十年里，中國、歐洲、印度、日本和韓國加入了。該計劃已被視為每個相關成員國的國家核聚變研發(fā)路線圖的匯聚點。

在ITER計劃中，中國作為一個穩(wěn)定、可靠的合作伙伴和領導者所發(fā)揮的作用在計劃的采購戰(zhàn)略中得到了最好的詮釋。歐洲作為東道主成員，出資約46%，包括中國在內(nèi)的其他成員各出資9%。但是這些貢獻并非以現(xiàn)金形式支付的，相反，每個成員的貢獻中約有90%是以“實物”即組件的形式提供的。組成該計劃的部件超過100萬個，加上相關的支持系統(tǒng)和服務，其結果錯綜復雜：集中設計、在三大洲的分布式制造、運輸和存儲物流，以及前所未有的合作。這使得每個貢獻都能及時投入測試中，并根據(jù)需要進行調(diào)節(jié)，并入該計劃的機器中。

根據(jù)設計，這種安排使每個成員國都能并行開發(fā)需要國家與國際科學進步和工程創(chuàng)新的各式首創(chuàng)部件。中國已為ITER提供了各種關鍵部件：所謂的饋電裝置為巨型超導磁體提供電力和低溫，更精細的“校正線圈”使操作人員能夠“微調(diào)”磁場的精確形狀，數(shù)百個部件用于提供無功補償和電力轉換以支持托卡馬克運行。

2020年6月，在新冠肺炎疫情發(fā)生后不久，ITER組裝階段的一個早期里程碑得以實現(xiàn)。當時的中國盡管面臨許多方面的挑戰(zhàn)，最終還是成功交付了6號環(huán)形場線圈。這是一場從中國合肥到普羅旺斯ITER場址的海陸之旅。這個直徑10米、重達400多噸的環(huán)形超導磁體是根據(jù)與ITER歐洲國內(nèi)機構的安排在中國制造的，在多個層面上代表了一種前所未有的突破。在低溫測試成功后，它成為2021年4月在ITER安裝的第一個磁鐵。

至關重要的是，中國在參與ITER項目的同時，國內(nèi)的核聚變研發(fā)項目也日益成熟。在20世紀90年代中期，中國與俄羅斯合作建造了第一臺超導核聚變裝置，即“合肥超環(huán)”（HT-7）。該裝置被2006年開始運行的全超導托卡馬克核聚變實驗裝置（EAST）取代。由合肥物質(zhì)科學研究院代表中國科學院運行的EAST繼續(xù)為全球聚變研發(fā)事業(yè)作出重要貢獻，最近創(chuàng)造了1000秒持續(xù)脈沖的紀錄。

除EAST外，中國還在成都的西南物理研究所運行HL-2M裝置，在武漢的華中科技大學運行J-TEXT裝置。加上從ITER合作中獲得的知識，這三個聚變實驗裝置的國內(nèi)經(jīng)驗促成了設想中的中國聚變工程試驗堆的設計。這是一個類似于ITER的裝置，旨在促成中國第一個商業(yè)聚變電站的開發(fā)。

與核裂變發(fā)電一樣，中國對核聚變研發(fā)的承諾一直遵循著合作伙伴關系、國內(nèi)產(chǎn)力增強和進軍領導者的模式。在2017年阿斯塔納世界博覽會上，習近平主席和其他全球領導人參觀了以裂變和核聚變能源的最先進技術為特色的中國展覽，我對此印象深刻。當ITER理事會主席，也是我的老友和同事羅德隆，給我發(fā)來一段視頻，播放習近平主席同中國高級領導人們闡述核聚變的好處時，我又回想起了這件事。

2019年9月，在中華人民共和國成立70周年前夕，我受邀到北京接受中國政府友誼獎。當站在人民大會堂里，在劉鶴副總理主持的儀式上，我被厚重的歷史征服，被幾十年來中法伙伴關系的顯赫成就征服，被有幸能夠在兩國之間這種前所未有的關系發(fā)展中發(fā)揮作用征服。

最令人難忘的是2020年7月，在疫情危機之中，中國對核聚變和ITER項目的承諾再次得到強化。ITER慶祝了其重大工程的安裝與啟動。在馬克龍總統(tǒng)主持的儀式上，來自ITER成員國的七位國家元首和多位部長發(fā)表了講話，其中包括習近平主席。他們重申了對氫核聚變共同愿景的承諾。

當中國科技部部長王志剛宣讀習近平主席的賀信時，合作的力量以及中國作為合作伙伴的可靠愿景再次得到印證?！翱茖W無國界，創(chuàng)新無止境。國際科技合作對于贏得人類面臨的全球性挑戰(zhàn)具有重要意義……中方愿同各方合力推進全球科技創(chuàng)新，為增進各國人民的福祉、實現(xiàn)全球可持續(xù)發(fā)展不斷作出新貢獻?！?/p>

誠然，這是我們對未來所持有的共同愿景。

The evolution of the People’s Republic of China over the last halfcentury-both economically and technologically as a global leader-is rightly regarded as a miracle. It would be remarkable for any nation to progress so quickly from a developing country to a fully industrialized status, but this occurrence in the world’s most populous country has been one of the most significant achievements in modern history.

Energy plays a crucial role in economic development and industrialization, and energy has, of course, played a critical role in China’s advancement. It has been my great privilege to play a small role in this aspect, particularly in nuclear fission for electric power generation and ongoing research and development in hydrogen fusion-both bilaterally, as part of France-China partnerships and part of multilateral and global bodies. One might say I have had a “front-row seat” to some of these developments, and I cherished these interactions as both an actor and an observer.

Watch the remarkable saga of steady growth in China’s peaceful nuclear journey

It is crucial to consider the formative years in order to understand how China’s nuclear energy evolution took shape. Many consider the start of the construction of the first Chinese nuclear power plant in Qinshan in 1985 a watershed moment. But I would look further: as far back as the 1970s, China had been giving serious consideration to developing a civil nuclear power program. Parallel to this, the Franco-Chinese relationship in science and technology had begun to take hold, possibly as a result of French President Georges Pompidou’s first visit to China in 1973.

From those early days, a pattern and a philosophy emerged that had characterized France’s relationship with China in some ways ever since. China was eager to acquire the advanced technology that France already possessed, making China a natural export market and developing country partner. In the case of nuclear energy, this necessitated a careful focus on building China’s full capacity, strategically andsteadily, to achieve a strong, peaceful nuclear regime with the highest standards of quality and safety, including a robust regulatory authority. Over time, this would logically lead to China’s acquiring more and more know-how, domestic capability and eventually to the establishment of China’s extensive nuclear workforce, component manufacturing capability, and self-sustaining nuclear industry.

France quickly understood the benefits and opportunities of having China as a long-term partnership with its massive potential. The“Cooperation Agreement between the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) and the Chinese Ministry of Nuclear Industry in the field of the use of peaceful atomic energy” was signed into force in 1982. The long-term viability of this agreement attests to the substantive partnership established. I am pleased to recall that this agreement was continuously renewed during my tenure as Chairman and CEO of the CEA, from 2009 through 2015, and with the signing of the 13th CEA-CAEA protocol during President Xi Jinping’s state visit to France in March 2019, the agreement-now 40 years oldcontinues to thrive.

In 1983, not long after the first signature on this fundamental agreement, a second, more practical “Memorandum of nuclear power cooperation” was signed. France agreed to provide four 900 megawatt pressurized water reactors (PWRs), collaborating with the Guangdongbased electricity provider CGNPG (China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group) to build two units at Daya Bay and two more at Ling Ao. This collaboration, which resulted in the beginning of commercial operations in 1993 and 1994, would be the first of many.

Clearly, China’s logical ambition has always been to learn as much as possible from its global partners in order to develop its own “homegrown” nuclear power technology and capacity. With that in mind, it was not surprising that China sought out other collaborators in addition to the French Framatome PWR designs. The first Chinese-based Canadian CANDU designs arrived in 2002, followed by Russian VVER reactors coming into operation in China a few years later. More recently, this diversified approach has led to the construction in China of the first two French-designed European Pressurized-Water Reactors (EPRs),developed at the Taishan site with Electricité de France (EDF) and beginning operation in 2018 and 2019.

With this ever-growing body of knowledge and experience, it was no surprise when the Chinese government, in 2014, tasked the Chinese National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC). And the re-named China General Nuclear Power Group (CGN) with developing the first fully Chinesedesigned generation III reactor: the “Chinese dragon,” Hualong-1 or HPR-1000. To ensure that all core components could be manufactured in China, 17 Chinese universities and research institutes, 58 state-owned enterprises, and more than 140 private companies collaborated to create this design. Hualong, which is entirely Chinese but owes a great deal to French technological collaboration, has now taken its rightful place at the heart of China’s nuclear power strategy and forecast for the future.

From a personal standpoint, I have watched this remarkable saga ofsteady growth in China’s peaceful nuclear journey with pleasure and admiration. Previously, I was asked to lead French delegations, which included relevant French governmental agencies and companies such as EDF and Areva, to interact and collaborate with our Chinese counterparts. It also took the form of multilateral collaborations in my capacity as the French governor of the International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA), where China’s steady emergence as a reliable partner was also consistently evident.

Of course, nuclear power was not the only source of rapid growth.Electricity is frequently referred to as the engine of economic growth,and I can think of no better example than what I witnessed in making repeated visits to Beijing and many other cities throughout China over the years. The stunning evolution of China’s urban skylines, modern airports, high-speed rail service, and many other technological sectors continued every year with each new visit. The “developing country partner,” bolstered by sound investment and collaboration, emerged to take its place as a dominant global power.

China’s nuclear power program’s current state is both a reflection and a supporting element of China’s overall modernization and scientific and technological advancement. It is by far the most active country globally in nuclear power expansion, with 52 units (54 GWe) in service and 20 more under construction. China will surpass France in nuclear-generated electricity for the first time in 2020 (second only to the United States).If plans continue to construct 6-8 new nuclear power plants per year through 2035, China’s installed nuclear-generated electricity capacity will reach 150 GWe.

It is especially pleasing for me that, despite this unprecedented growth in China’s domestic capacity, the groundwork laid over decades of Franco-Chinese cooperation continues to provide a role in China for French small and medium-sized enterprises. Approximately 90 federated members of the PFCE-the Association of French-Chinese Electricity Partners, centered on EDF-continue to provide services and maintenance for the ongoing development and operation of the Chinese nuclear power industry, frequently through joint ventures that significantly expand the markets for these French companies. This collection of ongoing relationships compellingly exemplifies the mutual benefit of collaboration and complementary growth.

Aside from nuclear power plants, Franco-Chinese cooperation has also expanded to a broad range of R&D across the nuclear fuel cycle

The next step for China, logically, is export. The initial series of fully“Made in China” Hualong reactors were put in place in Fuqing and Fengchenggang, with six more units authorized by the Chinese regulator for construction at Zhangzhou, Huizhou, and Changjiang. But in parallel, three international projects have steadily advanced: in the United Kingdom, where the regulator passed the Generic Design Assessment for the HPR-1000 reactor in February 2022; in Pakistan,where two HPR-1000s have been successfully installed at Karachithe latest connecting to the grid in March 2022-and three more unitsare planned; and in Argentina, where Canada and China are working jointly on plans to construct one CANDU and one Hualong unit.

Other international projects will undoubtedly follow, with periodic ongoing discussion reports, for example, in Brazil, the Czech Republic,and Kenya. While rigorously adhering to safety and quality standards,China’s systematic approach to standardization and cost efficiency adds credibility to its reputation as a reliable exporter of advanced technology. The intention of CNNC to create a follow-on reactor design,Hualong-2, with substantially reduced cost and a reduction in build time from 5 years to 4, will be likely to expand international interest.

Aside from nuclear power plants, Franco-Chinese cooperation has also expanded to a broad range of R&D across the nuclear fuel cycle,emphasizing France’s unrivaled expertise in reprocessing and waste treatment. History is essential in this area of collaboration as well.Partnership with China was largely implemented through CEA as a training activity, supporting the deployment of EDF joint ventures and the French nuclear industry in China, as noted above, in the 1990s,when I was serving in various roles in the French Ministry of Research as Head of the Scientific and Technical Mission (1993-1996), Director-General of Research and Technology (1996-1997), and Deputy Director for Research (1998 to 2000).

However, as China’s nuclear science and capacity grew inevitably, the focus would be shifted over the next two decades -first to designing and constructing a 100% Chinese atomic plant and then to more broadly diversified research and development. When President Emmanuel Macron paid a state visit to Beijing in 2018, he signed a critical memorandum of a commercial agreement with Areva to establish a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in China. This was a deliberate strategic choice on the part of China: unlike the United States and other major nuclear power users, China was signaling its adoption of the French model,in which spent nuclear fuel would be reprocessed to recover uranium and plutonium for use in the manufacture of “mixed oxide” (MOX)fuels, with vitrified fission product wastes being geologically buried.This reprocessing of used nuclear fuel reduces China’s dependency on uranium imports and extends the lifetime of the overall nuclear power outlook.

Similarly, China’s R&D has expanded to include the deployment of fast neutron reactors (FNRs) and “fourth-generation” reactors, with ongoing work on prototypes and demonstrations of various types, including high-temperature gas-cooled reactors, molten salt reactors using thorium as fuel, small modular nuclear plants, a lead-bismuth reactor, and a subcritical reactor linked to a particle accelerator. Taken as a whole, it is unlikely that all of the projects will be included in the long-term vision;however, the sheer number of projects demonstrates the extent to which Chinese expertise, accumulated strategically through partnerships and domestic research, is transforming China into the preeminent nuclear power leader of the 21st century.

ITER: for the benefit of all mankind

Finally, let me turn to China’s growth as an international partner in the global effort to bring the promise of hydrogen fusion to reality. Fusion energy is a nuclear process, like fission, but the physics is completely different. Hydrogen fusion is the power at the heart of our Sun and all the stars-the most abundant energy source in the universe-and the source of all light and heat on Earth, which provides the environment that supports life. Fusion energy has numerous advantages, including the promise of safe, environmentally friendly, and virtually limitless energy for future generations. However, the controlled production of hydrogen fusion power has proved to be a challenging endeavor.Fusion occurs at the core of the Sun due to extreme gravitation, which forces hydrogen nuclei to fuse. Because this gravitational force cannot be replicated on Earth, scientists and engineers have been working on alternative methods of harnessing fusion energy for more than six decades. The most promising method is magnetic confinement fusion,in which a low-density fusion plasma is created in a doughnut-shaped metal chamber called a Tokamak, heated to approximately 150 degrees;the temperature at which hydrogen nuclei reach the velocities needed for fusion to occur. And the reaction is controlled and confined by a precisely shaped magnetic field.

The leading international research collaboration for hydrogen fusion is the ITER project, located in the south of France. ITER was conceived in 1985 by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev as a project that would exist “for the benefit of all mankind.”In the decades that followed, five additional Members joined-China,Europe, India, Japan, and Korea-and the project has become the convergence point on the national fusion R&D roadmaps of each of the Members involved.

China’s role as a steady, reliable partner and leader in the ITER project is best understood in the context of ITER’s procurement strategy. As the host Member, Europe contributes about 46% of the project, with each Member, including China, contributing 9% each. However, these contributions are not made in cash; instead, approximately 90% of each Member’s contribution is made “in kind,” in the form of components. With over one million components comprising the ITER Tokamak, as well as associated support systems and services, the result is a complex arrangement of centralized design, distributed manufacturing across three continents, logistics for transportation and storage, and unprecedented collaboration to ensure that each contribution arrives on time to be tested,conditioned as necessary, and integrated into the ITER machine.

By design, this arrangement allows each Member in parallel to develop a wide range of unique components that demand national and international scientific advances and engineering innovations. China supplies a wide range of critical components for ITER under the supervision of the Chinese domestic agency: the so-called feeders, magnets that deliver the electricity and cryogenics to power ITER’s massive superconducting magnets; the more delicate “correction coils,” magnets that allow operators to “fine-tune” the precise shape of ITER’s magnetic fields; and hundreds of components designed to provide reactive power compensation and electrical conversion to support the experiment.

An early milestone in the ITER Assembly Phase was achieved in June 2020, shortly after the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic, when China successfully delivered Poloidal Field Coil #6, a journey over land and sea from Hefei, China, to the ITER site in Provence, despite many challenges. This ring-shaped superconducting magnet, ten meters in diameter and weighing more than 400 tonnes, was manufactured in China under an agreement with ITER’s European domestic agency and represented the first-of-its-kind breakthrough on multiple levels. After successful cryogenic temperature tests, it was chosen as the first magnet to be installed at ITER in April 2021.

Critically, China’s participation in ITER has been matched by an increasingly sophisticated domestic fusion research and development program.In the mid-1990s, China built its first superconducting fusion device, Hefei-Tokamak 7, or HT-7, and collaborated with Russia. This device was replaced by the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak, or EAST, which went into operation in 2006. Operated by the Hefei Institutes of Physical Science on behalf of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, EAST has continued to make significant contributions to the global fusion R&D enterprise, most recently setting a record for a 1000-second sustained pulse.

Aside from EAST, China also operates the HL-2M tokamak at the Southwestern Institute of Physics in Chengdu and the J-TEXT device at the Huazhong University of Science and Technology in Wuhan. Combined with the knowledge gained from the ITER collaboration, the domestic experience from these three fusion experimental devices has led to the design of the envisioned China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor (CFETR),an ITER-like device intended to lead to the development of the first commercial Chinese fusion plants.

China’s commitment to fusion R&D has followed the pattern of its commitment to nuclear fission power: collaborative partnership, expansion of domestic capability, and emergence as a leader. This was clearly demonstrated to me at the World EXPO in Astana in 2017 when President Xi Jinping and other global leaders toured the Chinese exhibition, which featured state-of-the-art fission and fusion power demonstration. I was reminded again when the Chair of the ITER Council, my long-time friend, and colleague Luo Delong, sent me a video showing President Xi explaining the benefits of fusion to a group of senior Chinese leaders.

I was also deeply honoured in September 2019 when I was invited to Beijing to receive the Friendship Award on the eve of the People’s Republic of China’s 70th anniversary. Standing in the Great Hall of the People for a ceremony hosted by Vice Premier Liu He, I was overcome by the sense of history, by the remarkable fruit of our decades-long Franco-Chinese partnership. It also serves as a reminder of what a privilege it has been to play a small role in this unprecedented relationship between our two countries.

The most memorable confirmation of China’s commitment to fusion and the ITER project came nearly one year later, in July 2020, when, in midst of the pandemic crisis, ITER celebrated its Start of the Assembly Phase. During a ceremony hosted by President Macron, seven Heads of State and multiple ministers from ITER Member countries issued statements, including President Xi,reaffirming their commitment to a shared vision of hydrogen fusion.

As Minister of Science and Technology Wang Zhigang read the words of President Xi, it was yet another testament to the power of collaboration and China’s reliable vision as a partner: “Science is not bound by national borders, and innovation is a never-ending endeavour. International Science and technology cooperation is critical to humanity’s response to global challenges... Let us work together to promote science, technology, and innovation across the globe and make new contributions to the betterment of lives in all countries and long-term development of the entire world.”

Honestly, this is indeed a shared vision of the future to which we can aspire.