“二戰(zhàn)”前后日本造園教育回顧與展望
——以實踐教育為例

沈悅

0 引言

日本自1868年明治維新以來，積極融合西方文明并通過實施一系列教育政策來提高國民的文化素養(yǎng)，從而使之在亞洲率先發(fā)展為成熟型社會。風(fēng)景園林在日本稱為“造園”，日本造園教育在發(fā)展過程中，除傳承傳統(tǒng)文化外，還融合了世界的科學(xué)研究成果，體現(xiàn)出較高的應(yīng)用水平，可為中國風(fēng)景園林教育界提供值得參考的經(jīng)驗。本研究以日本造園教育為研究對象，通過回顧其起源與變化，結(jié)合與時代對應(yīng)的社會發(fā)展及與造園相關(guān)的政策法規(guī)方面的變化，梳理造園教育的發(fā)展脈絡(luò)，歸納其特征，以便為中國風(fēng)景園林教育提供參考。研究方法主要是對文獻的梳理和對文獻作者及知情人的訪談。通過對資料的歸納總結(jié)，筆者認為應(yīng)當(dāng)反思當(dāng)前“過分細化”型的專業(yè)教育體系，要以保持“高度綜合性”為造園學(xué)科的基本特征，重視各領(lǐng)域知識的橫向連接，更好地實現(xiàn)以“用”為最終目的的實踐型教育。

1 起源與體系的建立——“二戰(zhàn)”前的造園教育（1914—1945年）

1.1 造園教育的形成

日本的大學(xué)造園教育，始于1890年東京帝國大學(xué)（現(xiàn)東京大學(xué)）設(shè)立的農(nóng)科大學(xué)林學(xué)科。1914年由本多靜六教授①開設(shè)景園學(xué)課程，1915年農(nóng)學(xué)科的原熙教授開設(shè)造園學(xué)課程。1916年，本多靜六教授對林學(xué)學(xué)科的教育體系做了進一步整編，并開設(shè)了景園學(xué)總論課程，其學(xué)生田村剛開設(shè)東洋景園史課程，本鄉(xiāng)高德博士開設(shè)西洋景園史課程，而后又有精于庭園研究的門生上原敬二加入了課程教學(xué)工作，構(gòu)成了園林教育框架的雛形。1918年，田村剛對美國的“Landscape Architecture”研究領(lǐng)域進行了系統(tǒng)研究，出版了著作《造園概論》，確立了造園是一種關(guān)于“構(gòu)成”的基礎(chǔ)理論。1919年，經(jīng)東京帝國大學(xué)林學(xué)與農(nóng)學(xué)2個學(xué)科的教育者商議，把造園教育的科目統(tǒng)一定為“造園學(xué)”，作為2個學(xué)科的共同選修科目，由本多靜六教授開設(shè)造園總論課程、原熙教授開設(shè)庭園論課程作為科目相關(guān)的課程。至此，初步形成了日本造園教育在大學(xué)層面的初始結(jié)構(gòu)[1-2]。

1.2 造園學(xué)的專業(yè)背景

1919年以來，以東京帝國大學(xué)林學(xué)學(xué)科為中心開展的一系列造園教育的公開課程，吸引了大量社會聽講生。在如此高需求的驅(qū)動下，上原敬二先生聯(lián)合各相關(guān)團體組織、召集造園教育相關(guān)人員，一同創(chuàng)立了庭園協(xié)會（日語：庭園協(xié)會），成為日本最初的造園團體組織。1928年，庭園協(xié)會設(shè)立了獨立的設(shè)計部，當(dāng)時日本國內(nèi)較著名的建設(shè)項目都與協(xié)會的關(guān)鍵創(chuàng)始人員密切相關(guān)，如被稱為史上第一個現(xiàn)代公園的日比谷公園即由本多靜六教授設(shè)計。庭園協(xié)會還曾集中出版了《造園叢書》（全24卷），創(chuàng)辦了雜志《造園》，在《造園》刊登的第一期中明確記錄了庭園協(xié)會的會則，同時明確了“造園”的英譯為“l(fā)andscape architecture”而并非“garden”[3]，這意味著造園雖然是一個新領(lǐng)域，卻并不停留于庭園的小范圍內(nèi)。協(xié)會的創(chuàng)始人員具有多樣的專業(yè)背景：如東京大學(xué)的本多靜六教授不僅具有德國的經(jīng)濟學(xué)博士學(xué)位，還獲日本的林學(xué)博士學(xué)位，在社會身份上，不僅是研究學(xué)者、教育家，還是投資者、園林設(shè)計者；此外，協(xié)會成員還有文學(xué)專業(yè)背景的龍居松之助、林學(xué)專業(yè)背景的田村剛和上原敬二；森林政策學(xué)專業(yè)背景的本鄉(xiāng)高德博士；工學(xué)專業(yè)背景的大江新太郎博士等。由此可以看出，在造園學(xué)的始創(chuàng)階段的構(gòu)成人員專業(yè)背景是非常多樣的，而且呈現(xiàn)出橫向交流緊密且相輔相成的狀態(tài)。同時造園學(xué)也隨著國家的實際建設(shè)而得到了實踐性的發(fā)展，因此可以說綜合性和實踐性是造園學(xué)的主要特征。

1.3 國家政策與造園教育的相互推動

在國家政策方面，日本在1837年時就有了太政官布達②政令，其申明要把全國的一些休閑地區(qū)、寺廟境域指定為公園。1888年政府又出臺了《東京地區(qū)改造條例》，明確了城市改造建設(shè)時需要設(shè)置公園，成為公園設(shè)置的萌芽期。1919年第一次編制了《舊都市計劃法》，其中對公園綠地的設(shè)置標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進行了明確的闡述，同年，造園學(xué)正式成為大學(xué)教育課程。1923年，日本突發(fā)關(guān)東大地震，由于公園綠地作為避難場所庇護了大量市民，使公園綠地在城市中的作用和存在意義得到了廣泛的認可，也促使災(zāi)后重建時建成了數(shù)量眾多的防災(zāi)公園。而后，在學(xué)者們的推動下，整個社會對于城市綠地的關(guān)注度逐漸提高，特別是以田園都市為藍本的城市建造吸引了人們更多的關(guān)注。1932年東京綠地協(xié)議會成立后，對環(huán)東京地區(qū)50 km范圍內(nèi)的962 hm2土地做了總體規(guī)劃，環(huán)城綠帶系統(tǒng)的概念隨之形成（“二戰(zhàn)”后未能實現(xiàn)）。至此，可以說“二戰(zhàn)”前的日本造園教育的基本特征是確立基本理論，教育出了一批務(wù)實工作的人才，這些人才對造園的普及、城建技術(shù)的開發(fā)、公共綠地的建設(shè)起到了重要的推動作用。在日本的城市綠地發(fā)展史上，這一時間節(jié)點也被稱為綜合性綠地規(guī)劃的萌芽期[4]。這一時期形成的大部分國家政策理念都依托于大學(xué)及研究機構(gòu)的學(xué)者，教育機構(gòu)培育的人才在入職政府部門后也致力于將理論與實際相結(jié)合，并從內(nèi)部推動政策的實施，體現(xiàn)了教育的意義所在。

2 社會意識與大學(xué)體系的完善——“二戰(zhàn)”后的造園教育

2.1 城市綠地保護意識的提升促進造園教育發(fā)展

從社會背景來看，日本在戰(zhàn)敗后，城市公園由戰(zhàn)爭中的“防空綠地”被占用為臨時建設(shè)材料堆放地，導(dǎo)致城市環(huán)境質(zhì)量得不到改善，因此整個社會對恢復(fù)城市美觀、確保公園基本功能的呼聲日益高漲。為了保障城市中的綠地以及便于日后更有效地推進綠地建設(shè)，日本政府于1956年制定了《都市公園法》，確定了城市公園的建設(shè)、管理、維護體系。法律生效后，公園建設(shè)的預(yù)算逐年遞增，促進了公園建設(shè)的快速發(fā)展。1957年，在國土層面上確立了《自然公園法》，在非城市層面指導(dǎo)了自然環(huán)境保護理念的開展，將國土中的重要資源按區(qū)域進行分級保護，為以后廣域的自然空間保護樹立了方向。這一時期，被稱為公共綠地建設(shè)及理論確立的推動期。

1964年日本舉辦了東京奧運會，城市的基礎(chǔ)建設(shè)延續(xù)了始于20世紀50年代后期的開發(fā)熱潮，日本有憑借奧運會契機重新樹立“二戰(zhàn)”后國際形象的設(shè)想，但是由于建設(shè)的指導(dǎo)方針不當(dāng)導(dǎo)致出現(xiàn)了很多形象工程，不可避免地產(chǎn)生了一些與傳統(tǒng)空間相悖的建設(shè)，最終致使鐮倉、京都、奈良等城市失去了一些至今也無法彌補的城市景觀。經(jīng)過反思，日本在1966年制定了《古都保存法》，確立了在文化景觀保護層面上的規(guī)章制度。1966—1967年，接連出臺了《首都圈近郊綠地保全法確立》《近畿圈郊區(qū)綠地保全法》，確立了以大城市為中心的廣域范圍的自然環(huán)境保護規(guī)制，對自然環(huán)境的保護起到了重要作用。這一時期可稱為自然環(huán)境保護重點推動期。1972年出臺了《自然環(huán)境保護法》，環(huán)境保護得到了公眾的廣泛認同；1973年出臺了《都市綠地保全法》，旨在保護郊區(qū)綠地環(huán)境；此后，這2個保護法規(guī)共同指導(dǎo)城市內(nèi)、外綠地的建設(shè)、保護及管理等事務(wù)，這一時期被稱為城市化中的綠地廣泛推動確保期[4]。在這一系列立法的背后都少不了教育行業(yè)及研究機構(gòu)學(xué)者的參與推動，可以說“二戰(zhàn)”后的造園教育發(fā)展與教育界學(xué)者們的社會活動緊密相連。

2.2 大學(xué)造園教育體系的完善

從大學(xué)教育上看，除“二戰(zhàn)”前就有造園教育的東京大學(xué)（成立于1877年）、京都大學(xué)（成立于1896年）、北海道大學(xué)（成立于1918年），以及私立的東京農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)（成立于1923，造園學(xué)科設(shè)立于1949年）繼續(xù)為社會輸送人才外，新成立的大學(xué)也統(tǒng)合了社會資源，開展了戰(zhàn)后的造園教育事業(yè)。截至2021年，日本已有60余所大學(xué)開展了造園教育并設(shè)立于環(huán)境學(xué)（含農(nóng)學(xué)）類、工學(xué)類、藝術(shù)類學(xué)科體系中。除了久負盛名的東京大學(xué)外，造園專業(yè)教育師資背景相對豐富的大學(xué)有：千葉大學(xué)（成立于1949年）、東京農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)（成立于1923年，造園學(xué)科設(shè)立于1949年）③、大阪府立大學(xué)（原速浪大學(xué)，成立于1949年，農(nóng)學(xué)部設(shè)立于1955年）、兵庫縣立大學(xué)（原姬路工業(yè)大學(xué)，成立于1949年）。其中千葉大學(xué)和東京農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)的造園學(xué)科在被編入正式大學(xué)教育前還有很長一段中專、高專層級的教育歷史，當(dāng)時授課的教師有東京大學(xué)的田村剛、本鄉(xiāng)高德、上原敬二等人[2]。上原敬二先生于1924年在東京農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)成立了東京高等造園學(xué)校（現(xiàn)東京農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)造園學(xué)科的前身）并擔(dān)任校長。因此，在師資力量的加持下，這2所大學(xué)的造園教育起點較高。

3 日本造園教育的三段式特征

因大學(xué)教育要為社會需要輸送人才，所以大學(xué)造園教育依據(jù)社會的發(fā)展，從最初側(cè)重于小尺度項目（庭園、公園）的建設(shè)研究轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)楹髞韺V域范圍（城市、國土、地域環(huán)境）的研究。培養(yǎng)專業(yè)人才的重點也是從本科逐漸移到了“大學(xué)院”（即中國的研究生院）。東京大學(xué)、京都大學(xué)的教育注重“培育研究者”和“向國家中樞輸送人才”，而其他大學(xué)一般致力于培養(yǎng)職業(yè)人才，人才的類型相對比較多樣。以下分3個階段闡述“二戰(zhàn)”前后日本造園教育的特征。

3.1 以時間與空間為兩大主軸的教育體系的發(fā)展階段

日本造園教育以“時間”和“空間”為兩大主軸，在造園學(xué)會層面上已有較多研究[5-6]。以時間為軸的教育模式主要體現(xiàn)為造園歷史教育，除日本造園史（1868年以前）和世界造園史外，明治時代以后的近代造園史等的回顧與驗證也是教育的重要一環(huán)。這種以時間為軸、以古今縱向發(fā)展的史學(xué)教育可稱為縱向型教育，不僅可使學(xué)生認識過去，更重要的是能促使學(xué)生通過歷史變遷總結(jié)規(guī)律，進而思索未來。比如兵庫縣立大學(xué)的綠地防災(zāi)教育就是以歷史上不同階段的事件，如1923年關(guān)東大地震、1995年的阪神淡路大地震，進行現(xiàn)象分析、推演城市中的開敞空間分布、人流避難路徑、避難綠地的使用狀態(tài)等，從而推導(dǎo)出未來的綠地存在方式。這種以時間為軸心的教育內(nèi)容是造園實踐教育活動中不可缺少的重要一環(huán)。

以空間為軸的教育則是以空間規(guī)劃、空間設(shè)計為主要的展開方面。它的教育目的并非是把學(xué)生全部都培養(yǎng)為規(guī)劃師、設(shè)計師，而是通過規(guī)劃設(shè)計的學(xué)習(xí)過程使學(xué)生認識到專業(yè)上必須考慮的各種因素和推演方式，以及彼此之間的關(guān)系。它的教育模式屬于橫向型教育。對每個具體的地塊（或地區(qū)）所涉及的地理環(huán)境、社區(qū)形態(tài)、法規(guī)、特有文化等進行橫向結(jié)合，綜合各項因素對研究區(qū)域做扎實的基礎(chǔ)分析，進而思考、推演其未來的空間形式。

上述的“一橫一縱”的主軸式教育組合呈現(xiàn)為“T”字形的教育模式（圖1），空間軸上表示教育中應(yīng)有的空間對象，有城市、交通設(shè)施、私邸、公園、河川、港灣，以及農(nóng)地、山地等；而在縱向的時間軸上，除了主要的造園史外，還有自然史、文化史、設(shè)計史等其他專業(yè)背景的知識被納入這個教育系統(tǒng)。這種模式的教育，對戰(zhàn)后快速發(fā)展經(jīng)濟，滿足社會剛性需求等方面起到了重要的作用。

1 發(fā)展階段以兩大主軸（時間和空間）為主的“T”字形教育“T”–shaped education content schematic (space and time)in the development stage

3.2 隨時代變化的教育改良階段

日本在戰(zhàn)后公園綠地的政策上隨社會狀況變化做出了相應(yīng)的改革。回溯日本關(guān)于綠地的主要立法和制度設(shè)置的變化，從《都市公園法》（1956年）到《都市綠地保全法》（1973年）的形成，以及“綠地總體規(guī)劃綱要”的確立（1977年），總體而言，是將城市綠地的發(fā)展重點從中心城市推廣至更廣域的城市綠地保護和建設(shè)的過程。戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束到20世紀80年代這一時期大學(xué)的造園教育更側(cè)重于開發(fā)規(guī)劃和空間設(shè)計，在校外的建設(shè)實踐中也形成了各種各樣的案例。1980年后，城市開發(fā)節(jié)奏進一步加快。1981年成立的“財團法人都市綠化基金”，標(biāo)志著民有資源進入城市綠化領(lǐng)域[2]，是官民共建綠色城市的里程碑。到20世紀90年代初，日本泡沫經(jīng)濟崩塌，城市建設(shè)規(guī)?？s減，民眾的焦點重新聚焦于環(huán)境質(zhì)量、開發(fā)前的環(huán)境評估等，這方面的項目委托數(shù)量增長。1995年阪神淡路大地震突發(fā)，地震中發(fā)生大規(guī)模火災(zāi)，造成6 434人死亡，住宅損毀639 686棟，這次自然災(zāi)害又一次警示了日本在城市中開敞空間的系統(tǒng)配置、城市防護隔離帶規(guī)模、建筑及道路的安全基準(zhǔn)上還存在著各種問題。在關(guān)西地區(qū)的家園重建中，重新思考人與自然的關(guān)系成了社會的關(guān)注點。

這一時期的教育雖然依舊普遍地承襲原有框架系統(tǒng)，但隨著社會形勢變化造園教育面臨的課題也隨之改變。1）需要把被忽略的綠地防災(zāi)避險功能重新放到重要的位置，加強防災(zāi)教育上的內(nèi)容。2）加快規(guī)劃設(shè)計手法的革新。20世紀80年代曾有一些日本設(shè)計師到歐美國家進修或短期留學(xué)，當(dāng)其將日本當(dāng)時的造園作品展示出時卻未得到歐美學(xué)者的好評，反而被批評過于模仿歐美風(fēng)格、未活用日本已有的造園資源，導(dǎo)致本土特色缺失。因此在當(dāng)時看來，在教育層面上，如何引導(dǎo)學(xué)生對本國固有文化解讀從而規(guī)劃獨具特色的風(fēng)景還面臨著較多的挑戰(zhàn)。3）當(dāng)時的社會發(fā)展已趨于成熟，公共空間的建設(shè)需要廣泛的公眾參與，即公共項目設(shè)計將由曾經(jīng)的“由專家說了算”向“由使用者說了算”轉(zhuǎn)變。從只重視“硬件”的建設(shè)過渡到“軟件”與“硬件”的同時推進。因此，在廣泛的公眾參與體系中如何有效地把控、整合各類團體的訴求成為造園教育中一項重要內(nèi)容。4）教學(xué)內(nèi)容與實際工作脫節(jié)。作為實踐性較強的造園學(xué)科經(jīng)過長年發(fā)展，專業(yè)劃分越來越細，而教師忙于完成科研任務(wù)和各種評審，參加工程實踐的時間減少，導(dǎo)致了造園教育的內(nèi)容上趨于培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的思考能力而忽視實踐訓(xùn)練，且大部分學(xué)校是以畢業(yè)論文的形式作為畢業(yè)的最終條件，使得造園教育逐漸偏離了實踐性教育。在這種狀況下，對分工過細的各個專業(yè)重新梳理，為社會輸送能夠掌握實踐技能人才成了一種需要。

為應(yīng)對時代變化，1999年，在日本兵庫縣知事貝原俊民先生推動下，建立了一個能夠應(yīng)對時代教育需求的以景觀園藝教學(xué)為主的學(xué)校。學(xué)校的教育內(nèi)容由日本庭園協(xié)會全面監(jiān)修，同時學(xué)校還召集了在新加坡、歐美等國家和地區(qū)中有長期造園工作經(jīng)驗的專家共同制訂了一套理想的教育方案，以解決造園教學(xué)內(nèi)容與實際工作脫節(jié)的現(xiàn)狀。由于專家們最終確定的實踐型課程的學(xué)時過多，在研究生院的教學(xué)內(nèi)容配置上遠遠超出了當(dāng)時文部省（相當(dāng)于中國的教育部）的設(shè)置標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，因此在開校之初，暫時掛靠于姬路工業(yè)大學(xué)的自然環(huán)境科學(xué)研究所，首先開展研究生院層次的教育實踐。學(xué)校名稱為淡路景觀園藝學(xué)校（日語：淡路景観園蕓學(xué)校），校園建在震后修復(fù)的淡路島，校園環(huán)境也是完全對應(yīng)景觀園藝教育而建。經(jīng)過10年的不斷更新運營后，被文部省認定為日本環(huán)境領(lǐng)域教育系統(tǒng)中唯一的實踐型教育研究生院。學(xué)校的前幾批學(xué)生幾乎都來自名校，如東京大學(xué)、京都大學(xué)、筑波大學(xué)、千葉大學(xué)、神戶大學(xué)、東京農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)，以及加利福尼亞大學(xué)伯克利分校（University of California, Berkeley）；生源的專業(yè)背景也多樣，不僅有來自造園學(xué)、建筑學(xué)等專業(yè)的傳統(tǒng)生源，還有來自三井物產(chǎn)、本田汽車等一流跨國企業(yè)的高管，更有造型藝術(shù)家、家政學(xué)教授、報社記者、海上保安廳技師等不同職業(yè)的學(xué)生，多樣的價值觀在學(xué)校里碰撞、交流后得出了很多新的發(fā)現(xiàn)。特別是非造園專業(yè)的學(xué)生所帶來的觀念和思考方式，為造園的創(chuàng)作注入了新的源泉，“造園的創(chuàng)作源泉在造園之外”的新思路在這所教育機構(gòu)得到了實現(xiàn)。淡路景觀園藝學(xué)校在2000年初始的教學(xué)內(nèi)容涵蓋了環(huán)境、栽培、建筑、土木（道橋）、藝術(shù)、城市設(shè)計、農(nóng)村規(guī)劃、傳統(tǒng)造園、社區(qū)建設(shè)、人際關(guān)系、管理運營，以及大量的周邊學(xué)④（應(yīng)時勢話題隨時開課，表1）。課程有70%的是實習(xí)時間，1名教師平均只指導(dǎo)2名學(xué)生，實行少數(shù)精銳教育⑤。從概念上講，是在傳統(tǒng)的“T”字形教育模式的基礎(chǔ)上將運營管理、政策施策的內(nèi)容疊加上，形成“才”字形教育模式（圖2）。

2 改良階段的“才”字形教育概念圖“才”–shaped educational schematic in the improvement stage

表1 1999年淡路景觀園藝學(xué)校的課程內(nèi)容Tab. 1 The Curriculum of the Awaji Landscape Planning and Horticulture Academy in 1999

“才”字形教育模式的重點是把管理運營內(nèi)容融合到時間和空間軸層面，一方面是分析政府的行政策略并在教育中傳授“誘導(dǎo)”政策取向的“技術(shù)”，讓學(xué)生實際體驗項目的立項過程和建設(shè)完成后的公共空間管理方法（圖3）。另一方面是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的“公眾感”及溝通能力。日本除了國家重點項目以外，一般性造園建設(shè)項目必須有公眾參與。來自不同地域的公眾的參與度和需求表達方式也不同，如何在每一次深入公眾時迅速地得到公眾的信賴并形成良好的溝通關(guān)系，面對議論紛紛場面如何擇善而行，最后如何使各方意見達成共識，并“誘導(dǎo)”它順利地付諸到實施中等，這些“管控運營”手段都是教育的內(nèi)容（圖4）。而這些教育都是在教室之外的實際建設(shè)項目中實施完成的。這種現(xiàn)場型的實踐教育可以使學(xué)生在較早的階段擁有對就業(yè)發(fā)展的自信，在之后一系列跟蹤驗證中也證明了它有良好的效果。

3 學(xué)生在公園規(guī)劃過程中聽取管理方的意見（明石市）Students listening to the government’s opinions on park management during their park planning process (in Akashi City)

4 學(xué)生在公園規(guī)劃過程中與公眾溝通（淡路市）Students discussing with local residents during their park planning process (in Awaji City)

在與海外的交流上，淡路景觀園藝學(xué)校除了設(shè)置外國專家來校教學(xué)制度，還設(shè)置了來自美國Fidelity財團贊助的園藝景觀技術(shù)交換研修項目（triad program），學(xué)員通過在日、英、美三國輪流研修的方式，實現(xiàn)國際聯(lián)合，將3個國家的造園技術(shù)的應(yīng)用融會貫通?？傊?，自2000年開始，經(jīng)過日本造園學(xué)會及建設(shè)行業(yè)對造園教育的反思，兵庫縣通過建立新校，率先進行了綜合的嘗試性教育并不斷改進，使受教育者能夠?qū)W以致用，讓造園這一實踐性較強的學(xué)科教育得到了以服務(wù)社會為實踐方向的發(fā)展。

3.3 造園教育的成熟階段

1）以空間為軸的教育?？臻g設(shè)計的實踐教育著重于讓學(xué)生在畢業(yè)之前實際參與造園建設(shè)的立項到設(shè)計、從監(jiān)管到項目建成落地的全過程，而不是只停留在圖紙評審的層面。整套教育流程包括從對實地的勘測、與甲方和公眾溝通，到方案的比較、概算把控、建材選擇，再至工程竣工的全過程參與（圖5）。

5 實現(xiàn)從現(xiàn)場調(diào)查到項目竣工全過程的造園教學(xué)Education on a process of the landscape design from survey to completion

這里有空間設(shè)計的體驗，也有設(shè)計過程中與公眾溝通，與甲方溝通，策劃實施匯報會的運營管控的實踐。其中一個環(huán)節(jié)是學(xué)生在設(shè)計實習(xí)中與當(dāng)?shù)鼐用駵贤?，以學(xué)生作為主導(dǎo)者，來把握公園未來的使用人群、投資者、建設(shè)者、管理者等多方的訴求并與各方做出合理的溝通后，再將解決方案反映到圖紙上，并不斷在實際建設(shè)中與導(dǎo)師或建筑方溝通解決新發(fā)問題。大部分項目會在學(xué)生畢業(yè)前建成落地。對建成后的景觀項目，學(xué)生還會對使用者進行滿意度問卷調(diào)查、總結(jié)項目經(jīng)驗，在整套建設(shè)過程后，學(xué)生很容易將“空間設(shè)計”和“過程管控”的兩方面技術(shù)的綜合掌握并把它充實為自身的能力。學(xué)生在設(shè)計過程中，除了經(jīng)歷公眾參與程序，還須經(jīng)歷與事業(yè)主體（政府）的溝通過程，這也對政府的項目推行建設(shè)起到了積極的作用。當(dāng)建設(shè)主管部門（政府）與公眾的意見不一致時，項目將無法推進。在此狀態(tài)下，無利益關(guān)系的學(xué)生的參與意見就顯得非常重要，而且研究證明，學(xué)生參與全過程也起到了政府（土地所有者）與公眾（未來使用者）之間的潤滑作用[7]。

2）以時間為軸的教育。一方面是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生對于歷史傳統(tǒng)的認知；另一方面是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生對于因時間而變化的風(fēng)景形成規(guī)律的認識。在歷史傳統(tǒng)方面的教育上，除了由資深的造園歷史學(xué)家講解歷史外，主要集中于日本庭園的現(xiàn)場教育。通過現(xiàn)場實際操作感悟造園中畫意的形成與四季變化的關(guān)系。在學(xué)習(xí)庭園建造時，首先強調(diào)親身接觸各種材料，體驗傳統(tǒng)材料的歷史文化和加工工藝，然后才是做規(guī)劃、施工，請京都一流的工匠手把手地指導(dǎo)制作細節(jié)（圖6～8）。通過參與傳統(tǒng)庭園建造的全過程，經(jīng)歷多次的現(xiàn)場試錯與磨合，循序漸進地理解和把握傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)的形成特征。在培養(yǎng)學(xué)生認識風(fēng)景形成與時間變化上，除了進行線上的規(guī)劃設(shè)計，還重點參與了現(xiàn)場建設(shè)。如尼崎市的尼崎21世紀之森就是一個通過設(shè)立時間軸來推進公園建設(shè)的項目，為保證公園的生態(tài)環(huán)境質(zhì)量和防止外來植物入侵生態(tài)空間，公園內(nèi)的綠化植物采用的都是從本地收集的植物種子，從育苗開始到長成良好的植物景觀。公園的綠化建設(shè)時間長度規(guī)劃為100年，在這個時間跨度下，每年讓學(xué)生與當(dāng)?shù)鼐用窆餐瑓⑴c公園的細節(jié)建設(shè)，包括采種育苗、移植樹木，并在過程中對青少年開展環(huán)境教育。這些實踐教育對培養(yǎng)學(xué)生形成風(fēng)景的格局意識大有益處。學(xué)生通過參與項目建設(shè)會自然地意識到風(fēng)景與時間、風(fēng)土文化與時間之間的關(guān)系，促成自我價值的提升并與歷史景觀共同成長。

6 在京都學(xué)習(xí)傳統(tǒng)的材料加工Students learning traditional material processing in Kyoto

7 在京都工匠的指導(dǎo)下進行庭園施工Traditional garden construction by students under the guidance of professional craftsmen in Kyoto

8 竣工后的日本傳統(tǒng)庭園Completed traditional Japanese garden

3）管理運營的教育。一方面，需要加強政策制定手法、公眾參與方面的教育。首先是研究政策制定，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生精通政策制定的各個環(huán)節(jié)，意識到專家在什么階段該做什么。其次是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生掌握政策形成后對造園行業(yè)的“誘導(dǎo)”效果，掌握與上層決策者溝通的技巧讓學(xué)生能夠自如地在市長、部長乃至副知事面前在短時間內(nèi)清晰表達自己的方案，并聽取他們從宏觀管理視角對方案提出的意見，提升學(xué)生自我的視野與洞察力（圖9）。另一方面是教育學(xué)生要深入到城市住宅或鄉(xiāng)間，掌握與居民溝通和挖掘場地潛能的能力，從現(xiàn)場發(fā)現(xiàn)問題再思考解決策略。這種類似“溝通學(xué)”的教育內(nèi)容實際上是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生如何在特定環(huán)境下把握人際關(guān)系，并利用人際交往達成協(xié)作的目的，從而實現(xiàn)具體的規(guī)劃目標(biāo)。

9 在市領(lǐng)導(dǎo)前作方案說明A student presenting plans to city officials

兵庫縣立大學(xué)研究生院景觀設(shè)計課程中，有關(guān)于農(nóng)村聚落景觀設(shè)計和建設(shè)的課題（圖10），建設(shè)地點是淡路市摩耶聚落（Maya Village, Awaji City）。該村人口平均年齡達65歲以上，雖然人群普遍老齡化，但當(dāng)?shù)鼐用穸季诠崆楹每?，對提升村落環(huán)境充滿熱情。師生們在深入村落進行實地調(diào)查后，歸納出了該村落的景觀潛力，并和當(dāng)?shù)卮迕褚煌接懥舜迓涞娘L(fēng)景建設(shè)構(gòu)想和規(guī)劃，以期實現(xiàn)鄉(xiāng)村的振興。學(xué)生的構(gòu)想及規(guī)劃得到了政府支持和來自多方的贊助，項目以“摩耶藝術(shù)村”為研究對象，把當(dāng)?shù)氐娘L(fēng)景資源整合提煉，設(shè)計了觀景臺、林中瑜伽臺，通過間伐雜樹，打開了通向海灣的最佳視線，打造出了當(dāng)?shù)氐拿?。建設(shè)用的木材是間伐樹，遺留的樹根被加工成地面上的藝術(shù)雕刻，整個過程中，學(xué)生與當(dāng)?shù)鼐用褚黄饎趧?，通過打造名景，促進了設(shè)計者及使用者之間的互動，提升了村莊的景觀活力[8]。這種通過深入公眾建立誠信，然后共同構(gòu)想、規(guī)劃、吸引資金等一連串的運營把控，不僅提高了學(xué)生自身的工作能力與自信，同時給老齡化地區(qū)的振興帶來了新的活力。

10 課程中的施工場景與完成的觀景臺Construction phase in the landscape design course and the completed observation deck

4）自然環(huán)境資源方面的體驗型教育。除了常規(guī)性的生態(tài)教育外，尤其注重在實例中的體驗式學(xué)習(xí)。如每一屆學(xué)生都會參加一個兵庫縣豐岡市的“實現(xiàn)生態(tài)田園社會”的項目，該項目始于兵庫縣立大學(xué)對東方白鸛（Ciconia boyciana）的引種恢復(fù)和野生放養(yǎng)實驗。兵庫縣的東方白鸛在濕地生態(tài)空間中原本處于食物鏈頂端的地位，在豐岡市因人類過量使用化肥造成濕地環(huán)境破壞而滅絕。2000年初，兵庫縣立大學(xué)將這種食肉鳥類從俄羅斯引種并人工飼養(yǎng)，進而實現(xiàn)了市內(nèi)放飛并使之恢復(fù)成為野生鳥類。學(xué)生們通過“實現(xiàn)生態(tài)田園社會”項目，親身體會到了每個自然物種、每一項自然資源在生態(tài)循環(huán)中的重要性，從而更深入地思考課堂上所學(xué)的理論（圖11）。同時他們也通過這個項目的實習(xí)理解現(xiàn)代社會在資源整合方面的運營特征，從而具備了進入社會工作前的基本素養(yǎng)。

11 SDGs融入教育的一部分(通過校園放牧比較草地的人工管理)Education to tackle SDGs in campus (sheep control grass growth through herding sheep)

日本國會在2003年通過了《社會資本重點整備法》，此后公園綠地作為社會資本的一個重要組成部分被重點強調(diào)，提高了全社會對綠地價值的再認識。2008年又通過了《生物多樣性基本法》，并以此為據(jù)建立了一系列更廣泛的自然資源保全策略，進入了與環(huán)境共生的展開期。近年的教育領(lǐng)域，提倡將可持續(xù)發(fā)展目標(biāo)（Sustainable Development Goals,SDGs）⑥融入教學(xué)。筆者預(yù)測將來會有更多的課程中增加SDGs內(nèi)容，尤其是環(huán)境保護范疇，很容易融合在造園教育之中。兵庫縣立大學(xué)淡路校園在探索SDGs課程中的實踐之一是通過放牧試驗，測算校園中的草地管理，用以把握“減碳”和“資源循環(huán)”的可能性（圖11）。這個項目還在實驗取樣過程中，從造園專業(yè)的角度來看，目標(biāo)是既減碳又易于實施，且易于成景。

綜上所述，2000年后的日本教育實踐與探索都顯示了環(huán)境資源在造園行業(yè)中的重要性，因此需要在教育系統(tǒng)的模式中增加相應(yīng)的資源內(nèi)容，如此可形成“米”字形的教育模式（圖12）。它是以時間、空間、資源、管理這4個主軸支撐的實踐教育系統(tǒng)，體現(xiàn)了造園教育應(yīng)當(dāng)擁有的高度綜合性。在全球的環(huán)境問題越來越依賴于每個行業(yè)內(nèi)的細節(jié)更新的時代背景下，“米”字形教育模式的資源軸在今后的發(fā)展中會不斷地被放大，風(fēng)景園林教育者應(yīng)當(dāng)有所準(zhǔn)備。這也是從回顧歷史過程中得出的未來展望。

3.4 小結(jié)

綜上，“二戰(zhàn)”后的日本造園教育發(fā)展有3個明顯的階段，第一階段是基礎(chǔ)框架的構(gòu)筑（圖1）。它繼承了“二戰(zhàn)”前的框架，是以造園建設(shè)中最基本的兩大要素為軸心而展開的體系。在戰(zhàn)后的復(fù)興建設(shè)以及后來的經(jīng)濟高速發(fā)展的時代，這個體系對應(yīng)了造園建設(shè)數(shù)量和人才培養(yǎng)數(shù)量上的需求。這時期的教育內(nèi)容也是偏重實技，以本科教育為基本體系向社會輸送人才。當(dāng)經(jīng)濟發(fā)展減緩，產(chǎn)能過剩，人口增長停滯時，本科畢業(yè)生的就業(yè)方向逐漸多樣化，高層次專業(yè)培養(yǎng)逐漸向轉(zhuǎn)向研究生教育，形成了當(dāng)今的教育結(jié)構(gòu)。這個時期的造園建設(shè)已從追求數(shù)量而逐漸轉(zhuǎn)向追求質(zhì)量，注重將已建成的空間改造為更有效的使用空間。也是就形成了第二階段的改良階段（圖2）。它把大學(xué)教育與實際需求脫節(jié)的部分重新整合，加強了以運營管理為重點的教育，以造園的“有效使用”為第一目的來審視以往的造園建設(shè)，并建立了可持續(xù)性發(fā)展的體系。第三階段是近10年來環(huán)境問題與人類生存的關(guān)系已到了不能忽視的狀態(tài)下，在對應(yīng)氣候變暖、維持世界生物多樣性等戰(zhàn)略上，需要落實到每一個具體的領(lǐng)域。對于社會經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展已經(jīng)到達相對成熟階段的國家而言，需要在實施有效的減碳措施并促進資源循環(huán)利用方面擔(dān)當(dāng)更多的義務(wù)和責(zé)任。作為面對實際的造園教育，以“米”字形的實踐性教育模式展開，會使學(xué)生用更綜合性的視野去面對未來的行業(yè)發(fā)展（圖12）。

12 成熟階段的“米”字形教育發(fā)展模式圖“米”–shaped educational development model schematic in maturity stage

4 討論與展望

通過回顧，明晰了造園教育應(yīng)該是順應(yīng)時代需求而不斷改良的綜合性教育。在長年的衍變過程中專業(yè)領(lǐng)域被過分細化，教育過程偏重于“構(gòu)想”“推理”而忽視“活用”，導(dǎo)致很多學(xué)生最后到畢業(yè)可能都無法完成一份正式的圖紙，所以需要對教育不斷改進。日本每隔幾年就有學(xué)者對造園教育進行反思和討論，熱點話題都與造園的實用性相關(guān)。最近一次的內(nèi)容是2019年對設(shè)計領(lǐng)域教育的反思[9]，有的討論參與者比較了美國公立大學(xué)以工作室為教學(xué)方式的課程密度，相比之下日本的同等教育內(nèi)容明顯不足；也有的參與者比較了國外大學(xué)造園教育的橫向范疇，指出日本在同等教育的層次上因缺乏與外專業(yè)的橫向互動而影響了專業(yè)的視野擴展和未來發(fā)展；更有人指出日本造園教育在策劃和設(shè)計上的公眾參與、交流共進不夠注重，導(dǎo)致項目的“建”與竣工后的“用”脫節(jié)。特別是新冠肺炎疫情大范圍地傳播后，市內(nèi)公園綠地成了為市民提供相對安全的消解壓力的節(jié)點，從社會需求上講必須重點研究使用與行為等關(guān)鍵點。長期以來，“人”與“自然”一直是世界風(fēng)景園林領(lǐng)域的研究重點，展望將來，有必要加上在自然環(huán)境下的“人”與“人”的重點研究。如何處理好這三角關(guān)系，是今后成熟型社會環(huán)境下保證風(fēng)景園林可持續(xù)性發(fā)展的又一關(guān)鍵。

通過回顧，我們再次意識到日本現(xiàn)代造園學(xué)科的教育的創(chuàng)始階段，主要創(chuàng)建人物都有著豐富而多專業(yè)背景和各自的橫向人脈。無論是奧姆斯特德還是本多靜六，都有多專業(yè)的經(jīng)歷和學(xué)科統(tǒng)籌能力。在幾個學(xué)科的邊緣開拓出的高綜合性的造園學(xué)科本不應(yīng)該隨著分工的細化而失去原有的“初心”（即高度綜合性）。雖然在3D打印、人工智能技術(shù)不斷發(fā)展的今天，人類對自然環(huán)境的分析能力和對社會的管控程度不斷增強，但不能把技術(shù)手段當(dāng)成目的。風(fēng)景園林是追求人與自然和諧的大背景下實現(xiàn)人與自然共生的一個重要領(lǐng)域。因此，再一次強調(diào)為“用”而“建”，為“生存”而“保護”，為“行為”而“空間”，為“持續(xù)”而“管理”才是風(fēng)景園林教育今后之路，也是實踐型教育應(yīng)當(dāng)注重的關(guān)鍵點。

注釋：

① 本多靜六（1866—1952）是東京帝國大學(xué)教授，從事教育和科研的同時涉及大量的實務(wù)設(shè)計，被稱為日本公園之父。退休后將全部財產(chǎn)捐贈于公益。

② “太政官布達”是指明治政府的太政官對各地發(fā)布的法令。

③ 東京農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)成立于1923年，造園學(xué)科于1949年編入。

④ 周邊學(xué)是可能與造園發(fā)生關(guān)系的外專業(yè)內(nèi)容（如布展學(xué)，狩獵學(xué)等）。

⑤ “少數(shù)精銳教育”是指一名教師只教少數(shù)幾個學(xué)生。對每個人單獨輔導(dǎo)，精致地把握教育的全過程的教育方式。⑥ SDGs是聯(lián)合國的可持續(xù)發(fā)展目標(biāo)，2016年開始在全球范圍內(nèi)應(yīng)用。

圖表來源：

文中所有圖表均由作者繪制和拍攝。

（編輯 / 李清清 劉昱霏）

A Review and Prospect of Landscape Education Before and After the World War Ⅱ: A Case Study of Practical Education in Japan

SHEN Yue

0 Introduction

Since the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan has actively integrated with the Western civilization and improved the cultural literacy of the people by implementing a series of educational policies,thus taking the lead in developing into a mature society in Asia. Chinese landscape architecture is known as “gardening” in Japan. Although it faces problems common in Asian countries, such as large population and crowded cities, Japan has integrated the world’s scientific research results in addition to inheriting traditional culture in the process of development, reflecting a high level of application.This provides valuable experience worthy of reference for the Chinese landscape architecture education development. This research takes Japanese landscape education as the object. By reviewing the origin and variety of landscape education in Japan, the social development state corresponding to the times, and the changes of policies and regulations related to landscape architecture, it sorts out the development process of landscape education and summarizes the characteristics, so as to provide reference for landscape architecture education in China. The research methods mainly comprise reviews of the literature and interviews with the literature authors and industry discipline.Through the summary of the data, I believe that we should reflect on the current “over-segmented”professional education system, maintain the “high integration” as the basic characteristics of the landscape architecture discipline, stress horizontal connection of knowledge in various fields, so as to better realize the practical education with“application” as the ultimate purpose.

1 Origin and System Establishment —Landscape Education Before the World War II (1914–1945)

1.1 The Formation of Landscape Education

Landscape education in Japan could be dated back to 1890 when the forestry discipline was established in the college of agriculture of the Tokyo Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo).In 1914, Professor Seiroku Hongda①offered a Landscape Architecture (Japanese:景園學(xué)) course.In 1915, Professor Hiroshi Hara of the agricultural discipline gave the Landscape Architecture (Japanese:造園學(xué)) course. In 1916, Professor Seiroku Honda further reorganized the education system of the forestry discipline, and offered the course on the General Theory of Landscape Architecture. His student Takeshi Tamura opened the Japanese Landscape Architecture History course. Dr. Takanori Hongo offered the Western Landscape Architecture History course. Later, Keiji Uehara, a disciple skilled in researches, joined the course teaching work. They constituted the prototype of the landscape education framework. In 1918, Takeshi Tamura carried out systematic study of the “l(fā)andscape architecture”researches of the United States, and publishedIntroduction to Landscape Architecture, which established landscape architecture as a fundamental theory of “composition”. In 1919, the educators of the forestry and agriculture disciplines of Tokyo Imperial University discussed and agreed to name the subject of landscape education as the “l(fā)andscape architecture science”, and as a common selective course of the two disciplines. Professor Seiroku Honda offered General Theory of Landscape Architecture and Professor Hiroshi Hara gave the Landscape Architecture Theory as subject-related courses. By that time, the initial structure of Japanese landscape education at the university level was formed[1-2].

1.2 Professional Background of Landscape Architecture Science

Since 1919, the forest science discipline center of Tokyo Imperial University Forestry has launched a series of open landscape education courses,attracting a large number of students from the society. Driven by such a high demand, Keiji Uehara,together with relevant organizations and landscape architecture education personnel, founded the Landscape Architecture Association, which became the earliest landscape architecture organization in Japan. In 1928, a separate design department was set up in the Landscape Architecture Association. At that time, the most famous construction projects in Japan were closely related to the key founders of the association. For instance, Hibiya Park, known as the first modern park in the country, was designed by Professor Seiroku Honda. The association publishedLandscape Architecture Series(24 volumes) and founded theLandscape Architecturemagazine.The first issue of the magazine clearly recorded the rules of the Landscape Architecture Association,and stipulated the English translation as “l(fā)andscape architecture” rather than “garden”[3]. This means that although landscape architecture was a new field, it was not confined to the small scale of gardens. The founders of the association had diverse professional backgrounds. For example, Professor Seiroku Honda of the Tokyo Imperial University had both a Ph.D. in economics from Germany and Doctor of Science in Forestry from Japan. In terms of social identity, they were not only research scholars and educators, but also investors and landscape designers. In addition,the association members included Matsunosuge Tatsui with literature background, Takeshi Tamura and Keiji Uehara with forestry background, Dr.Takanori Hongo with a professional background in forest policy, and Dr. Shintaro Oe with engineering background. It is apparent that the founders of the landscape architecture science had diverse professional backgrounds, presenting a state of close horizontal communication and inseparable interconnection. The landscape architecture science gained practical development along with the actual construction in the country. Therefore,comprehensiveness and practicality are virtually the main characteristics of landscape architecture science.

1.3 Mutual Promotion of National Policy and Landscape Education

In terms of national policy, Japan had promulgated the “Dajyokanfutatsu”②policy in 1837, which declared that some leisure areas and temple territories across the country should be designated as parks. In 1888, the government issued theRegulations on Reconstruction of the Tokyo Area, which stipulated that parks should be set up in urban reconstruction and construction.This was the embryonic period of park setting.In 1919, theOld Metropolis Planning Lawwas prepared for the first time, which clearly elaborated the setting standards for park green space. In the same year, the landscape architecture science was officially listed in the university curriculum. In 1923,the Great Kanoto Earthquake occured. Since the park green space as a refuge sheltered great many people, it was widely recognized for the role and existence significance in the city. This prompted the construction of numerous disaster prevention parks in the post-disaster reconstruction. Since then, under the promotion of scholars, the whole society paid more and more attention to urban green space. In particular, urban construction modeled on pastoral cities attracted higher attentions. After the establishment of the Tokyo Green Space Council in 1932, a master plan was made for the 962 hm2land within 50 km around the Tokyo area, and the concept of the green belt ring system was formed(it was not realized after the WWII). In short, the basic feature of Japanese landscape education before the WWII was to establish the basic theory and foster a group of practical talent, who played an important role in promoting the popularization of landscape architecture, the development of urban construction technologies, and the construction of public green space. In the history of urban green space development in Japan, this time node was also known as the embryonic period of comprehensive green space planning[4]. Most of the national policy principles formed in this period relied on university education and scholars at research institutions. After joining the government departments, the talents cultivated by educational institutions were committed to integrating theory with practice, and promote the implementation of policies from the inside, which reflects the significance of education.

2 Social Consciousness and Improvement of the University System— Landscape Education after the World War II

2.1 The Enhancement of Urban Green Space Protection Consciousness Promotes the Development of Landscape Education

From the perspective of social background,after Japan’s defeat in the WWII, urban parks were occupied from “air defense green space” in the war to temporary storage areas of construction materials.The quality of the urban environment could not be improved. Therefore, the whole society was increasingly demanding to restore the beauty of the cities and ensure the basic functions of the parks.In order to ensure the green space in the cities and promote more effective green space construction in the future, the Japanese government formulated theMetropolitan Park Lawin 1956, defining the construction, management and maintenance system of urban parks. After the law came into effect, the budget for park construction increased year by year, promoting the rapid development of park construction. In 1957, theNatural Park Lawwas established at the territory level, which guided the new development of the concept of natural environmental protection at the non-urban level,and carried out hierarchical protection of important resources in the land according to regions, setting up a direction for the protection of wide domains of the natural space in the future. This period is known as the promotion period for the construction of public green space and the establishment of theories.

In 1964, Japan hosted the Tokyo Olympics. The city’s infrastructure continued the development boom that began in the late 1950s. Japan wanted to take the opportunity of the Olympic Games to rebuild its international image after the WWII. However, due to the improper guidelines for construction, there emerged a lot of image projects, which inevitably led to the appearance of many constructions inconsistent with the traditional space, and made Kamakura,Kyoto, Nara and other cities lose some of unique the cityscapes that cannot be made up to now. After reflections across the country, Japan formulated theAncient Capital Preservation Lawin 1966, which established rules and regulations at the level of cultural landscape protection. From 1966 to 1967, it successively enacted theEstablishment of the Green Space Protection Lawin the Suburbs of the Capitaland theLaw on Green Space Protection in Kinki Circle Suburbs, which established wide-range natural environment protection regulations centered on big cities, and played an important role in the protection of natural environment. This period is known as the key promotion period of natural environmental protection. In 1972, theNatural Environmental Protection Lawwas introduced, and environmental protection was widely recognized by the public. In 1973, the Urban Green Space Protection Law was unveiled to protect the suburban green environment.Since then, these two protection laws have jointly guided the construction, protection and management of green space inside and outside cities. This period is known as the widespread promotion period of green space in urbanization[4]. Behind the series of legislation are the indispensable participation and promotion of scholars from the education circles and research institutions. In fact, the development of landscape education was closely linked to the social activities of scholars in the education circles after the WWII.

2.2 Improvement of Landscape Education System in Universities

From the perspective of university education,the Tokyo University (founded in 1877), Kyoto University (founded in 1896), Hokkaido University(founded in 1918), and the private Tokyo University of Agriculture (founded in 1923, with landscape architecture discipline established in 1949), which offered landscape architecture education before the WWII, continue to deliver talents to the society. The newly established university also integrated social resources to carry out the landscape education after the WWII. As of 2021, more than 60 universities in Japan had launched landscape education and put it in the environmental (including agronomy),engineering and art disciplines. In addition to the prestigious Tokyo University, there are a number of universities with a relatively rich faculty background of landscape education, including Chiba University(founded in 1949), Tokyo University of Agriculture(founded in 1923, with landscape architecture science discipline established in 1949)③, Osaka Prefecture University (formerly Naniwa University, founded in 1949, with the department of agriculture established in 1955), University of Hyogo (formerly Himeji University of Technology, founded in 1949). Among them, the Chiba University and Tokyo University of Agriculture had a long history of landscape education at the technical secondary school and college level before incorporating the landscape architecture discipline into formal university education. The lecturers included Takeshi Tamura, Takanori Hongo and Keiji Uehara from Tokyo University[2]. In 1924,Keiji Uehara founded the Tokyo Higher Landscape School of Tokyo University of Agriculture (the predecessor of the landscape architecture discipline of Tokyo University of Agriculture) and served as the principal. Therefore, with the support of mighty faculty, the two universities had a high starting point in landscape education.

3 Three-Stage Characterized Japanese Landscape Education

Since university education should provide talents to meet the needs of the society, university landscape education has conformed to social development, shifting priority from the initial focus on the construction research of small-scale projects(gardens and parks) to the present research of wider ranges (urban, land and regional environments).The emphasis of professional talent cultivation has also gradually moved from undergraduate courses to graduate schools. Education at Tokyo University and Kyoto University stresses “fostering researchers” and “delivering talents to national key departments”, while other universities are largely committed to cultivating professional talents, with relatively diverse majors. The three stages illustrate the characteristics of Japanese landscape education before and after the WWII.

3.1 The Development Stage of Landscape Education System with Time and Space as Main Axes

The Japanese landscape education takes “time”and “space” as the main axes, and there have been many researches at the landscape architecture society level[5-6]. The time-based education model is mainly embodied in the landscape history education. In addition to the Japanese landscape history (before 1868) and the world landscape history, the review and verification of the modern landscape history after the Meiji Restoration is also an important link of education. Such a history education with time as the axis on the vertical development in ancient and modern times is referred to as the vertical education. It makes students understand the past and, more importantly, promotes them to summarize the rules through historical changes,and think about the future. For example, the green space disaster prevention education of University of Hyogo cites events at various stages of history,such as the Kanto earthquake in 1923 and the Hanshin-Awaji-daishinsai earthquake in 1995, to perform phenomenon analysis, and deduce open space distribution, evacuation paths for the people,and the state of the use of refuge green space in cities, so as to derive the future existence modes of the green space. Such a time-centered education content is an indispensable part of the landscape practice education activities.

Education with space as the axis is mainly based on spatial planning and spatial design. The educational purpose is not to train all the students into planners and designers, but through the learning process of planning and design to make students realize the various professional factors and inference modes that must be considered, and their relationship. Such an education model belongs to the horizontal education. The geographical environment,community form, regulations and unique culture involved in each specific plot (or region) are integrated horizontally to make a solid basic analysis of the research areas based on various factors, and further think and deduce the future spatial form.

The above horizontal and vertical axis-based education portfolio is presented as a T-shaped educational model (Fig. 1). The space axis represents the due space objects in education, including cities, transport facilities, private residences, parks,rivers, harbors, farmlands and mountains. In the longitudinal timeline, in addition to the main garden history, there are other professional background knowledge of natural history, cultural history, design history and so on is included in the education system. In the vertical timeline, in addition to the main landscape history, other professional background knowledge, such as natural history,cultural history and design history, are included into the education system. This model of education has played an important role in boosting the economy to meet the rigid demand of the society after the war.

3.2 Improvement Stage of Landscape Education Along with Times

Japan made corresponding reforms in the postwar park green space policy along with the changes in social conditions. Looking back upon the changes in the main legislation and systems of green space in Japan, we can see that from the formation of theMetropolitan Park Law(1956) to theUrban Green Space Preservation Law(1973) and the establishment of the Outline of Green Space Master Plan (1977), Japan promoted the development focus of urban green space from central cities to the protection and construction of urban green space in a wider range. The university landscape education from the end of the war to the 1980s focused more on the development planning and spatial design,and a variety of cases were formed in off-campus construction practice. After 1980, the pace of urban development was further accelerated. In 1981, the“Consortium Legal Person Urban Greening Fund”was established, marking that private resources entered the field of urban greening[2]. It was a milestone in the co-building of green cities by the government and the people. By the early 1990s,Japan’s bubble economy collapsed. The urban construction was scaled down, and the focus of the people was redirected to environmental quality and pre-development environmental assessment.The number of commissioned projects increased.In 1995, the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake broke out with massive fires, killing 6,434 people and damaging 639,686 houses. This natural disaster once again warned Japan of various problems in the system configuration of open space in cities,the scale of urban protection and isolation zones,and the safety benchmarks of buildings and roads.In the reconstruction of homes in the Kansai area,rethinking the relationship between man and nature became the focus of the society.

Although education in this period remained generally inheriting the original framework system,the topics of landscape education also altered along with the changes of the social situation. 1) The neglected disaster prevention function of greenspace should be put back to an important position to strengthen the content of disaster prevention education. 2) Accelerating the innovation of planning and design methods. In the 1980s, some Japanese landscape designers went to Europe and America for advanced studies. When they showcased the Japanese landscape architecture works of that time, they were not well received by European and American scholars, but were criticized for excessive imitation of the European and American styles, failing to make flexible use of the existing Japanese landscape resources, which led to the lack of local characteristics. Therefore, it seemed at that time, at the educational level, how to guide students to interpret the native culture and thus plan unique scenery was still facing many challenges. 3) At that time, the social development tended to be mature, and the construction of public space required extensive public participation. That is to say, the public project design would change from the former pattern of “experts having the final say” to the one “decided by the users”. It would also transition from only stressing “hardware” in the construction to the simultaneous promotion of both “software” and “hardware”. Therefore, how to effectively control and integrate the demands of various groups in the wide public participation system became an important part of the landscape education. 4) The teaching content was out of touch with the actual work. After years of development,the landscape architecture discipline of strong practicality was getting more and more segmented in the professional division. However, the teachers who were busy completing scientific research obligations and various reviews, gave less time to participate in engineering practice. As a result, the content of landscape education tended to cultivate students’ thinking ability and ignore practical training. Moreover, most schools took graduation papers as the final condition for graduation, making landscape education gradually deviate from practical education. In this situation, it has become necessary to re-scrutinize the excessively segmented division,and deliver talents who master practical skills to the society.

In response to the change of the times, a school based on landscape planning and horticulture education was established in 1999, under the impetus of Mr. Toshitami Kaihara, governor of the Hyogo County. The educational content of the school was fully supervised by the Japanese Landscape Architecture Association. The school also gathered experts with long-term landscape architecture experience in Singapore, Europe and the United States to jointly formulate an ideal educational plan to solve the disconnection of the teaching content of landscape from the actual work.Since the experts finalized excessive hours of the practice course, far exceeding the setting standard of the Ministry of Education at that time in the graduate school teaching content configuration,it was temporarily attached to the Institute of Natural Environment Science of Himeji University of Technology at the beginning of the school,and first launched the practical education at the graduate school level. The school, named as Awaji Landscape Planning and Horticulture Academy,was built in the Awaji Island, which was resurrected after the earthquake. The campus environment was completely to conform to the landscape architecture and horticulture education. After 10 years of continuous renewal and operation, it was recognized by Ministry of Education as the only graduate school of practice-based education in Japan’s environmental field education system.The first groups of students of the school almost all came from prestigious universities, such as the Tokyo University, Kyoto University, University of Tsukuba, Chiba University, Kobe University, Tokyo University of Agriculture, and the University of California, Berkeley. The professional backgrounds of students were also diverse. They were students from the traditional disciplines of landscape architecture science and architecture, or executives from first-class multinational enterprises such as Mitsui Products and Honda Automobile, or from diversified professions such as modeling artists, home economics professors, newspaper journalists and marine security agency technicians.A lot of new discoveries were made after the collision and communication of various values in the school. In particular, the ideas and ways of thinking brought by non-landscape architecture major students injected new sources into the landscape architecture creation. The new idea that“the source of landscape architecture creation is outside the landscape architecture” was realized in this educational organ. The teaching content of Awaji Landscape Planning and Horticulture Academy in early 2000 covered the environment,cultivation, architecture, civil engineering (road and bridge), art, urban design, rural planning, traditional garden, community building, human relationships,management operations, and a large amount of peripheral sciences④(courses were offered at any time to meet current events of trends, Tab. 1).About 70% of the course time were applied for internship. One teacher guided only two students on average to implement elite education⑤.Conceptually, it is to superimpose the content of operation management and policy measures on the traditional “T”-shaped education model to form the “才”-shaped education model (Fig. 2).

The focus of “才”-shaped education model is to integrate the management and operation content into the time and spatial axes. On the one hand,it is to analyze the government’s administrative strategy and imparts the “technology” to “induce”the policy orientation in education, so that students can actually experience the process of project approval and the public space management method after the completion of the construction (Fig. 3).On the other hand, it is to cultivate students’ “public sense” and communication ability. In Japan, except for national key projects, public participation in the workshop is a must for general landscape architecture project construction. Participants from different regions are involved and express demands in different ways. The “operation control”measures, such as how to quickly win the trust of the public and form a good communication relationship when going deep into the public, how to choose the good in the face of controversy, how to make the opinions of all parties a consensus, and put it into smooth implementation, are the content of education. All these education are completed in the actual construction projects outside the classroom (Fig. 4). This on-site practical education can give students confidence in employment development at earlier stages. It has also proven good results in a subsequent series of tracking validations.

In terms of overseas communication, in addition to setting up the system of inviting foreign experts to teach in the school, Awaji Landscape Planning and Horticulture Academy also established the triad program, sponsored by the US Fidelity consortium, for the exchange studies of horticultural landscape technologies. By allowing students to take turns to study in Japan, Britain and the United States, it achieves international unity, and integrates the landscape architecture application technologies of the three countries.In short, since 2000, the Japanese Landscape Architecture Association and the construction industry have reflected on the landscape education.Hyogo County, by establishing a new school,took the lead in implementing comprehensive experimental education and making continuous improvement, so that the learners could apply what they have learned, and lanscape architecture, a practical discipline education, could develop in the way of serving the society.

3.3 The Mature Stage of Landscape Education

1) Education on the space axis. The practical education of space design focuses on allowing students to actually participate in the full landscaping process from project approval to design, from supervision to project completion,before graduation, rather than only staying at the level of drawing review. The whole educational process includes the participation from the survey on the field, communication with Party A and the public, to the comparison of the plan, control of the budget, selection of building materials, to the completion of the project (Fig. 5).

There are experiences of space design,and the practice of operation control, such as communicating with the public in the design process, communicating with Party A, and planning and implementing the briefing meeting. One link is that students communicate with the local residents during their design internship. The students serve as the leader to grasp the demands of the future users, investors, builders and managers of the park, make reasonable communications with all parties, then reflect the solutions on the drawings,and constantly communicate with the mentor or construction side to solve the new problems found in actual construction. Most projects will be completed before the students graduate. For the completed landscape projects, the students will conduct user satisfaction questionnaires and summarize the project experience. After the whole construction process, it is easy for the students to comprehensively master the two aspects of“space design” and “process control” technology and enrich it into their own ability. In the design process, in addition to going through the public participation process, students must also experience the process of communicating with the business subject (the government), which also plays a positive role in the implementation of project construction by the government. When the construction authorities (government) disagree with the public,the project will not be advanced. In this state, it is very important for students with no stakes to participate in the process. Studies have shown that student participation in the whole process could lubricate the relationship between the government(landowner) and the public (future users)[7].

2) Education on the time axis. On the one hand, it is to cultivate students’ cognition of historical tradition. On the other hand, it is to cultivate students’ understanding of the laws of landscape formation that changes due to time changes. In terms of historical tradition education,in addition to explaining history by senior landscape historians, it mainly focuses on onsite education in Japanese gardens. For example,through pruning garden plants, students can grasp the subtle relationship between plant growth and spatial changes. Through the actual operation on site, students can perceive the relationship between the formation of artistic inspiration in landscape architecture and the changes of the four seasons.When learning landscape architecture construction,students are first told to personally touch materials with their fingers, and experience the history, culture and processing technology of traditional materials.Then it comes to planning and construction. Top craftsmen of Kyoto are invited to guide, hand in hand, the production details (Fig. 6-8). By participating in the whole process of traditional garden construction, students will experience many field trials and run-in, and understand and grasp the formation characteristics of traditional aesthetics step by step. In cultivating students to understand the formation of landscape and time changes, it is essential to allow them participate in the on-site construction, in addition to online planning and design. For example, the 21st Century Forest in the city of Amagasaki is a project to advance the construction of the park by establishing a timeline.To ensure the ecological environment quality of the park and prevent exotic plants from invading the ecological space, the greening plants in the park are fostered with seeds collected locally. From seedling to growing into a good plant landscape, the timeline for the greening construction of the park is planned for 100 years. In this time span, students and local residents participate in the details of the park construction every year, including collecting seeds for the culture of seedling, transplanting trees, and providing environmental education for teenagers in the process. Such a practice education has great benefits to cultivating students to form the pattern consciousness of landscape. By participating in the project construction, students will naturally realize the relationship between scenery and time,local culture and time, improve self-value and grow together with the historical scenery.

3) Education for managing operations. On the one hand, it is necessary to strengthen the education in “policy-making techniques” and“public participation”. The first is to study policy formulation, train students to be proficient in all aspects of policy formulation, and realize what the experts should do in each stage. The second is to cultivate students to master the induction effect of policy formation on the landscape architecture industry, command the skills for communicating with upper decision makers, so that they could freely express their plans in front of the mayor,department director and even deputy governor in a short time, listen to their opinions on the plan from the perspective of macro management, and improve students’ self-vision and insight (Fig. 9).On the other hand, it is to encourage the students to go deep into urban housing or countryside,master the ability to communicate with the residents and tap the potential of the site, find problems at the site and think about solution strategies. Such a“communication” educational content is actually to train students how to grasp human relationships in specific environments and use interpersonal communications to achieve the collaborative goals and hence fulfill specific planning goals.

In the landscape design course of the Graduate School of University of Hyogo, there is a topic on the landscape design and construction of rural settlements (Fig. 10). The construction site is Maya Village, Awaji City. The average age of the villagers is over 65 years old. Although the population is generally aging, the local residents are skilled in farming and hospitable to visitors. They are full of enthusiasm for improving the village environment. After conducting a field investigation into the village, the teachers and students summed up the landscape potential of the village, and discussed the landscape construction concept and planning of the village with the villagers, in order to achieve the revitalization of the countryside. The students’ conception and planning won support of the government and received sponsorship from various parties. The project takes “Maya Art Village”as the research object, integrates and refines the local landscape resources, and designs the viewing platform and forest yoga platform. By cutting the miscellaneous trees at intervals, it opens up the best sight to the bay and creates a famous scenery in the locality. The timber used for construction was from the chopped miscellaneous trees. The roots left on the ground were processed into artistic carving works. During the whole process, the students worked together with the local residents. By creating famous scenery, it promoted the interaction between the designers and users, and enhanced the landscape vitality of the village[8]. This series of operational control, such as building integrity in the public and then jointly imagining, planning and attracting funds, not only improved students’ working ability and confidence, but also brought new vitality to the revitalization of the aging areas.

4) Experience education in natural environmental resources. In addition to conventional ecological education, priority should be given to experiential learning in examples. For example, every class will participate in a project of “Realizing the Ecological Pastoral Society” in Toyooka City, Hyogo County,which began with the introduction for the restoration of the oriental white stork (Ciconia boyciana) and wild stocking experiments by University of Hyogo.The oriental white stork in Hyogo County was originally at the top of the food chain in the wetland ecological space. It became extinct in Toyooka City due to the wetland environmental damage caused by excessive human use of chemical fertilizer. In early 2000, Hyogo County University introduced the carnivorous bird from Russia and raised it artificially.In turn, the birds were released in the city and restored to wild status. Through the “Realizing the Ecological Pastoral Society” project, the students personally realized the importance of each natural species and each natural resource in the ecological cycle, thinking more deeply about the theories learned in the classroom. They also understood the operation characteristics of the modern society in resource integration through the internship of this project, and had the basic quality before entering the social work.

In 2003, the Japanese parliament passed theKey Social Capital Preparation Law. Since then, park green space has been highlighted as an important part of social capital, which helps to improve the re-understanding of the value of green space in the whole society. In 2008, theBasic Law of Biodiversitywas adopted, and a series of broader natural resources preservation strategies were established on this basis, marking the country has entered the development period of symbiosis with the environment. Recent years, the sustainable development goals (SDGs)⑥are integrated into education and are advocated. It is estimated that more courses will incorporate the SDGs content in the future, especially the category of environmental protection will be easily integrated in landscape education. One of the practices of the Awaji campus of University of Hyogo in SDGs exploration courses is to measure the grassland management on campus through grazing experiments to grasp the possibility of “carbon reduction” and “resources cycle”(Fig. 11). This project is still in the experimental sampling process. From the perspective of landscape architecture expertise, the goal is to reduce carbon and make it easy to implement and make scenes.

To conclude, the Japanese educational practice and exploration after 2000 have shown the importance of environmental resources in the landscape industry. Therefore, it is necessary to add corresponding resource content to the model of the education system, so as to form the“米”–shaped education model (Fig. 12). It is a practical education system supported by the four main axes of time, space, resources and management,reflecting the highly comprehensive nature that landscape education should have. In the context that the global environmental problems are becoming more and more dependent on the updated details in each industry, the resource axis of the “米”–shaped education model will be continuously amplified in the future development, and landscape architecture educators should be prepared. This is our future outlook derived from the review of history.

3.4 Summary

It can be concluded that there are three obvious stages in the development of landscape education in Japan after the WWII. The first stage was the construction of the basic framework(Fig. 1). It inherited the framework before the WWII, and was a system centered on the two most basic elements of landscape construction. In the era of post-war revival construction and the later era of rapid economic development, this system corresponded to the “quantity” of landscape construction and the quantity of talent cultivation.In this period, the educational content focused on practical technology, with undergraduate education as the basic system to deliver talents to the society.As economic development slowed down, with excess production capacity and stagnated population growth,the employment direction of the undergraduate was gradually diversified, and high-level professional training was bit by bit shifted to graduate education,forming today’s education structure. In this period,the landscape construction gradually shifted from quantity to quality, paying attention to forming the built space into more effective use space. This led to the improvement stage in the second stage (Fig. 2). It re-integrated the disconnected university education from the actual needs, strengthened education with focus on operation and management, examined the previous landscape construction for the first purpose of the effective use of parks and green spaces, and established a system of sustainable development.In the third stage, the relationship between the environment and human survival in the past 10 years has reached a state that cannot be ignored. The strategies of tackling climate warming and maintaining biodiversity need to be implemented in every specific field. To realize effective carbon reduction measures and achieve the recycling of resources, countries with mature economic and social development need to assume more obligations. The landscape education proceeds with the “米”-shaped practice-based education mode, which will make students have a more comprehensive vision to deal with the future profession development (Fig. 12).

4 Discussion and Prospect

Through the reviews, it has become clear that landscape education should be a comprehensive education that is constantly improving in line with the needs of the times. It is over-segmented in the professional field in the years of evolution. The education process emphasized “conception” and“reasoning”, while ignoring “flexible application”. As a result, many students may not be able to complete a formal drawing upon graduation. So there needs continuous improvement in education. Every few years in Japan, scholars would reflect on and discuss landscape education, and the hot topics are related to the practicality of landscape architecture. The latest event was a reflection on education in the design area in 2019[9]. Some participants compared the curriculum density of studio-based teaching method in public universities in the United States. In contrast,Japan’s equivalent education is clearly inadequate.Other participants compared the horizontal category of landscape education in Japanese and foreign universities, concluding that the lack of horizontal interactions with foreign majors at the same level of education has affected the expansion of vision and future development of the major. And some pointed out that public participation and communication in Japanese landscape education received insufficient attention, leading to disconnection of project“construction” and the “use” after completion. In particular, after the wide spread of the COVID-19 epidemic, urban green park space has become a relatively safe node for the people to relieve pressure.In terms of social needs, we must pay high attention to studying the key points of use and behaviors.For a long time, “man” and “nature” have been the research focus in the field of modern landscape architecture. Looking forward, it is necessary to add the relations of “man” and “man” in the natural environment in the key research list. How to deal with this triangle relationship is another key to maintain sustainable landscape architecture under the mature social environment in the future.

Through the reviews, we have once again realized that in the founding stage of modern landscape architecture, the main characters all had rich and multiple professional backgrounds and their own horizontal connections. Both Olmsted and Seiroku Honda had multiple professional experiences and discipline coordination ability.The highly comprehensive landscape architecture discipline that is developed on the edges of several disciplines should not lose its “original aspiration”(i.e., highly comprehensive) with the detailed division. Although today 3D printing and artificial intelligence technology are advancing continuously,and the human ability to analyze the natural environment and control the society is constantly enhanced, the technical means cannot be taken as the purpose. Landscape architecture is an important field to realize the symbiosis between man and nature under the background of pursuing the harmony between man and nature. Therefore, we should once again emphasize that “construction”for “use”, “protection” for “survival”, “space” for“behavior”, and “management” for “continuity”are the path of landscape education in the future.They are also the key in practice-based education.

Notes:

① Seiroku Honda(1866–1952) was a professor at Tokyo Imperial University. He was engaged in education and scientific researches, while involved in a large number of practical designs, hence known as the father of Japanese parks. After retirement, he donated all his properties to the public welfare.

② “Dajyokanfutatsu” referred to the decrees issued by the officer to all regions during the Meiji regime.

③ Tokyo Agricultural University was founded in 1923, and the landscape architecture discipline was incorporated in 1949.

④ The peripheral science refers to the content of other disciplines that may be related to landscape architecture(such as exhibition and hunting).

⑤ “Dedicated few elite education” refers to an education mode in which a teacher teaches only a few students,tutors each person alone, and has exquisite grasp of the whole process of education.

⑥ SDGs are the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, which were applied globally in 2016.

Sources of Figures and Table:

All figures and table are provided by author.

(Editors / LI Qingqing, LIU Yufei)