Overlapping or Reshaping:Chinese Image in Lin Yutang’s Trans-creation Works

LIU Ru-fei

Lin Yutang had been working hard to spread Chinese culture in English since he settled abroad in 1936 and all his oversea trans-creation works to some extent re-shaped the Chinese image in the West. This paper makes a contrast study between the stereotyped one in the West and the real Chinese image in Lin Yutangs trans-creation works and finally points out that Lin Yutangs adoration for Chinese culture and his passion for establishing culture identity overseas has set a good example for building up a good national image for China today.

Keywords： Lin Yutang， Trans-creation works， Chinese image

Introduction

The national image is a comprehensive evaluation and overall impression of the international community on a country in politics， economy， military， spirit， consciousness， concept， customs， environment and other aspects. Tracing back the history， from 13th to 19th century， the image of China displaying in the western eyes had experienced from the process of “worship” to “devaluate”， from “paradise” to “hell”， most of which were from the “Text China” written by missionaries or writers （Zhouning， 2011）. Until modern times， by grace of the efforts made by Gu Hongming and Lin Yutang and other devoted Chinese writers， who had been committed to introducing Chinese culture directly to the world in foreign languages， Chinese image underwent real re-shaping and therefore， excellent Chinese culture could be spread in the world.

Wang Qinling （2018） believes that when the author transforms Chinese culture in his mind into specific English words， it is a typical phenomenon integrating translation and writing， that is “trans-creation”. Lin Yutangs oversea works， from proses collections as My Country and My People to novel trilogy as Moment in Peking， A Leaf in the Storm and The Vermilion Gate to his classics translation collections as The Wisdom of Confucius to whatever （Lin， 2009）， can be called as his trans-creation. It is his trans-creation that well re-shaped the Chinese image with cultural confidence and national confidence， and thus realized the interaction and communication between China and Western countries. Therefore， the study of Chinese image created by Lin Yutangs trans-creation works can give us a better understanding for writer himself， and furthermore， provides reference for the global-establishment of a good national image for China today.

Literature Review

There are many scholars involving in the study of “Chinese image” in Lin Yutangs the overseas trans-creation works. Among them， Gao Hong （2004） explores the different characteristics of the Chinese image created by Lin Yutangs overseas trans-creation works through the angle of comparative literature， the cultural identity and narrative strategy his overseas trans-creation works convey； Wang Zhaosheng （2007） analyzes the relationship between Lin Yutangs overseas trans-creation works and Chinese classical novels； Feng Zhiqiang （2018） puts forward the “l(fā)anguage confidence” in Lin Yutangs translation works for the first time； Xiao Bairong （2019） expounds that the translation writing method in Lin Yutangs English novels contributed to the output of Chinese culture and the reshaping of Chinese image.

Compared with domestic study， there are few abroad studies of Lin Yutangs overseas trans-creation works on Chinese image， and if so， sporadic papers are almost limited to Moment in Peking. For example， Dudásová （2015） has analyzed respective Chinese image by comparing Pearl Bucks Earth and Lin Yutangs Moment in Peking， in which the different language strategies adopted by the two authors when facing American readers are explored from the different narrative styles.

Stereotypes： Changing Chinese Image in the West

Before the spread of Lin Yutangs works， Chinese image were mostly stereotyped-one from“Text China”constructed by missionaries or writers.

In Travels of Marco Polo （William Marsden， 1998）， Marco Polo， an Italian businessman in the 13th century， concentrated on describing Chinese cities and transportation， products and commerce， as well as politics and religion. For the first time， he highly materialized the image of China in his travels.

In the 16th Century， in his book China in the 16th Century： The Journal of Matthew Ricci （He Gaoji， 2010）， Matthew Ricci depicted the ancient image of the great Chinese Empire in a rich and comprehensive way. Then， when in 1687， the landmark work Confucius： Chinese philosopher （Philippe Couplet， 1998） compiled by Philippe Couplet was published in Paris， the “Confucian Utopia” marked an era of philosophical image in China.

However， from the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century， the image of “Utopia”created by the “Text China” finally ended after some foreign missions visits from Britain and the Netherlands. Arthur H. Smith （Chinese name： Mingenpo） （Liu Wenfei， 2014） in his Chinese Characteristics depicted the ugly image of the Chinese people and won the popularity in the West， which led Chinese image to the bottom. Moreover， at the end of the 19th century， with the spread of the Yellow Peril theory and the widespread panic caused by Chinese Boxer Rebellion in 1900， Chinese people became the immoral villains and the dangerous devils haunted in the Westerners nightmare.

Overlapping： Positive Stereotyped Chinese Image in Lin Yutangs Trans-creation Works

Marco Polo viewed China as a rich place with endless gold and silver treasures； Matthew Ricci regarded that Chinese people revered the imperial power and family system was the foundation of Chinese society； Philippe Couplet depicted a “Confucian Utopia” attracting due adoration， all of which might overlap Lin Yutangs oversea trans-creation works.

In Moment in Peking， Lin Yutang made great efforts to render Mulans luxurious and spectacular wedding.

1 gold juyi， I silver juyi， 4 jade juyi， 1 pair of solid old gold bracelets of dragon design， 1 pair of gold-fibered bracelets of lobster-feelers design， 1 gold lock pendant， 1 gold neck ring， 1 pair of gold curtain hooks， 10 gold ingots； 2 sets of table silver… 1 set of jade animals， 1 set of amethyst， 1 set of amber and carnelian， then followed the stationery and antiques， such as sandalwood curio cabinets， a case of carved ivory followed， after which came 10 cases of silk， gauze， crepe， and satin， 6 cases of furs… （Lin， 2009， p. 325）

In the above description， “ruyi， bangles， jade， amethyst， oracle bone， ivory， silk and satin” and other unique products appearing on Mulans wedding showed the prosperity and happiness beyond peoples imagination， shaping Chinese image of being “rich”.

In chapter six of My Country and My People， Lin Yutang discussed the state from aspects of “government dimension” and “cultural dimension”. And among them， “government dimension” was mainly about the“virtuous government”， “township system”， “family system” and so on. While， “cultural dimension” was about the description of Chinese image generally distributed in “social life and political life” because of their unique cultural value and aesthetic conception， which reflected the temperament of the country. In his mind， different from the West， Chinese government was “Government by Gentlemen”.

The most striking characteristic in our political life as a nation is the absence of a constitution and of the idea of civil right… which mixes moral with politics and is a philosophy of moral harmony rather than a philosophy of force… （Lin， 2009， p. 178）

When talking about the base of Chinese family system， he said，

The family system colors all our social life， it nearly takes the place of religion by giving man a sense of social survival and family continuity … （Lin， 2009， p. 179）

Since he had set a tone for the Chinese government and family， it is no wonder that in his other trans-creation works， the big families in the stories had such relations with the royal family， and several heroines Mulan， Meiling and Rouan were all born in the rich and precious families， thus shaping Chinese image of being “noble， civilized and harmonious”.

Confucius-worshipped People

The Wisdom of Confucius is a compilation of Chinese classics typically characterized by lots of culture-bound words or phrases and proverbs.

In chapter five Aphorisms of Confucius， when mentioning the standards of being a superior man， Confucius said， “There are three things about the superior man that I have not been able to attain. The true man has no worries； the wise man has no perplexities； and the brave man has no fear” （Lin， 2009， p. 208）.

Besides the trans-creation works related to Chinese classics， Lin Yutang also quoated Confucius and Analects many times in his novels. In the A Leaf in the Storm， Lao Peng was a real gentleman meeting the Confucian value of “worry not and fear not” and Lao Pengs wife only liked Confucius Chinese character and refused to learn pinyin. In A Moment in Peking， even when eating crabs in the Mid Autumn Festival， young people did not forget to quote Analects of Confucius in their argument. In The Vermilion Gate， Du Zhong was both the royalist and loyal defender of Confucianism， who was compared as an old oak tree， which might be cut down by the axe， but not rotten inside.

All the Chinese image in Lin Yutangs trans-creation works illustrated above happened to overlap the stereotyped Chinese image—being rich， civilized and Confucius-worshipped， which was once popular among the western world before 19 century.

Reshaping： Negative Stereotyped Chinese Image in Lin Yutangs Trans-creation Works

As we have mentioned above， in the 19th Century， Arthur H. Smith （Mingenpo） deliberately devaluated Chinese image as being “vicious and ignorant，ugly and opium-addicted， foot-binding and Subservient”， which built a negative Chinese image in the world. We find that in Lin Yutangs trans-creation works， for all personal defects the Chinese figures had， while， since he displayed with a tone of humour， rather than an inadvertent coincide with the negative stereotyped-image in the eyes of the West， such image-mold should be treated as another ways of reshaping.

In chapter two of Moment in Peking， Lin Yutang gave a vivid description of Boxers Movement.“Once inside， the Boxers， under the covert protection of the Empress Dowager and Prince Tuan， terrorized the city. They roamed the streets， hunting and killing First Hairies and Second and Third Haries” （Lin， 2009， p. 8）.

Undoubtedly， Boxers magic actually couldnt resist the attack of foreign bullet， and compared with the foreigners power， Boxers seem to be so puny to be bullied. However， given an in-depth reading， here， Lin Yutang used “First Hairies” referring to foreign people， “Second Haries” and “Third Haries” referring to those Chinese who spoke in English and believed in religion or worked for foreigners. Boxer group， with the slogan of “helping Qing Dynasty and destroying the foreign countries”， destroyed the facilities of foreigners everywhere. And later， wherever they arrived， they would cause the fear of foreigners. Here， contrary to the obvious derogatory consciousness as displaying ignorance of Chinese， Lin Yutang humorously showed his tendency against the foreign evasion between the lines.

Fu Zengxiang and Gu Hongming who were outstanding scholars in history， appeared in the trans-creation works with real names. However， in the novels， they were “small”， “thin”， “Opium smoker”， “perverse”， “pride in his queue”， “old type Chinese” and “poseaur”， which were inherited traditional Chinese images in the eyes of Westerners.

Fu Zengxiang was described as follows， “Mr.Fu was a small man， this man with small mustache， and an opium smoker.” （Lin， 2009， p. 338）

And the appearance of Gu Hongming was as follows， “This old philosopher whose name was Ku， he had studied at Edinburgh and had returned and become a crank， taking great pride in his queue and his old type Chinese dress… If he were a poseaur.” （Lin， 2009， p. 405）

However， eccentric and imperfect as Fu Zengxiang and Gu Hongming were， they were still respected as the learned scholar and old philosopher. Fu Zengxiang refused to sign on the agreement to split Beijing university during the May 4th Movement ， and he was treated as an great educator and revolutionist in Chinese modern history； Moreover， Gu Hongming， who studied at the University of Edinburgh and England， was very proud of his braids and old-fashioned clothes and whose The Spirit of Chinese won the favor of Westerners and once beautified image of China. The reason why Li Yutang chose them as the heroes in the trans-creation works may reveal a fact， that is， Lin Yutang showed strong approval for their personality charm， but not their appearance.

Chinese women are supposed to be highly inferior to men in Westerners eyes. However， behind the pen of Lin Yutang who had the value of “women worship”， most of the female images in his trans-creation works were intellectual， beautiful， rational and full of artistic sense. Mulan， Dani， Rouan and other women in ancient classics all shared special personal charm and were regarded as the soul of the big families who could always find the compromise between the family dutyand personal happiness. And even the idea of foot-binding with strong male dignity and feudal backward color was discussed from the perspective of male aesthetics. For foot-binding could improve womens body， increase their charm， and make them look virtuous and quiet. Therefore， convention was not the power to restraint or crash women， on the contrary， it idolized them with high praise.

Orientalism： Pros and Cons？

Judging from what have been discussed above， we can see that most of Chinese image in Lin Yutangs trans-creation works seemed to overlap the stereotypes among westerners so that his trans-creation works were often criticized by some Chinese scholars. They took it for granted that Lin Yutangs trans-creation works had the tendency of “Orientalism”， which seemed to bleached or even to collude with Western stereotypes against China， rather than challenge.

The term “Orientalism” originated from Sayid （2007） who generally expressed the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. China， located in the Far East， especially after the Chinese civilization fell behind， fall into the object of the reconstruction of Orientalism. Such Chinese vision in this Western culture had directly or indirectly affected some Chinese writers with Chinese background， and made them deliberately cram “Oriental exotic” in their creation mainly exposing ignorance， discrimination and ugliness of oriental culture to cater to the west.

There is no denying that most of Lin Yutangs trans-creation works carried on the color of “Oriental exotic” such as womens foot-binding and mens opium consumption， and whose descriptions had revealed the cultural differences between the East and the West and whose stereotypes would warmly welcomed by the western world. However， it is still unfair to simply classify Lin Yutang as a writer who worked from the perspective of Orientalism only by certain Chinese image which was consistent with the stereotyped imagination of the Western world.

For one thing， Lin Yutang accepted and adored Chinese culture even with his missionary family background. When young， Lin Yutang was taught to recite Chinese ancient classics and when in Peking University， he also was dedicated to making up Chinese culture during his study and work. Under the education background in Church University in his youth， he was used to viewing Chinese culture with the help of Western culture. But， it doesnt mean that he would like to cater to the westerners with the devaluation of Chinese image.

For another， Lin Yutang adhered to the value that Chinese culture might cure the defects of modern world. After going abroad in 1936， seeing the serious distortion of Chinese image in some Western texts， Lin Yutang devoted to trans-creation works， objectively evaluating the Chinese and Western culture and made them reach a complementary state. Because in his mind， although Chinese sometimes lacked the Western ambition， innovation， enterprising consciousness and public spirit， when the East and the West had a collision， the Oriental peoples survival wisdom could often make up for the deficiency of Western civilization. In his trans-creation works， China enjoyed richness， harmony and civilization， where Chinese people were yearning for the ideal life of complementing Confucianism and Taoism. Although there were some figures seemed to be ignorant， superstitious and backward， yet， with a tone of funny joke and humor， there was no intention of mockery and criticism.

To achieve his purpose， he spared no effort not only to introduce Pidgin English containing Chinese expressions and ways of thinking in his trans-creation works， but also， he showed the preference for the typical Chinese narrative ways both in novels and classics translation works. In the fourth chapter of Moment in Peking， his narrative way was the imitation of traditional Chinese fiction， and whenever the description of Chinese cultural phenomena was concerned， Lin Yutang would try to convey it with the most accuracy. Therefore， the assertion of so-called “Orientalism” image of in his trans-creation was only a lopsided judgement.

Conclusion

Lin Yutang， who had left their hometown and settled in other countries， tried to maintain his culture identity in various ways such as persisting in comfortable Chinese robes for many years， not being foreign nationality， and most important， reshaping Chinese image through his trans-creation works. Facts proved that after Lin Yutangs success in trans-creation in the West， the consciousness of the self-conscious spokesperson of Oriental culture had been shown to the greatest extent. All of these had reflected the good wishes of Lin Yutang， a great bi-lingual writer， who in all his life， had been actively promoting and spreading Chinese traditional culture in the West.

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