Years of China-ASEAN Dialogue:Join Hands to Create a Civilization of Cooperation

The year 2021 is the 30th anniversary of the establishment of dialogue relations between China and ASEAN. As an old Chinese saying holds， a man should be independent at the age of thirty. For China and ASEAN， this signifies that their relations have become mature at this stage. The first sign of maturity is the establishment of a solid foundation for their relations and a mechanism for sustainable development. The second is that the two sides have learned to handle the relationship well， especially when it comes to properly addressing contradictions and disputes between the two sides. China and ASEAN have become good neighbors and partners with mutual trust， and have realized win-win cooperation. On the occasion of commemorating the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations， summing up the successful experience in their cooperation is of great significance for steady and sustainable development of the relationship.

Adhering to the Direction of Dialogue and Cooperation

China and Southeast Asian countries are adjacent and close neighbors and have a long history of contacts and exchanges. In the post-WWII era， relations between the two sides have witnessed a tortuous development. Early after the founding of ASEAN， China had no direct communication with the organization. However， the end of the Cold War provided an opportunity for the two sides to establish direct contact， and both began to define the relationship with a new strategic orientation. In 1991， the proposal of dialogue from China received a positive response from ASEAN. In the same year， the Chinese foreign minister attended the ASEAN foreign ministers’meeting as a distinguished guest， and the next year， ASEAN identified China as a “partner for consultation.”

In their dialogue and consultation at that time， China and ASEAN focused on politics and security. For China， the priority was to create a favorable international environment under the new situation， advance the construction of non-confrontational partnership， break the containment and sanctions on China imposed by the United States and other countries， and promote a good environment for opening-up and development. On the other hand， ASEAN focused on realizing stability in the Southeast Asian region in the “post-conflict period，”1 and building sustainable regional peace through dialogue and consultation with China. Therefore， the two sides could meet each other halfway in terms of perception and orientation.

With this basis in place， after several years of dialogues， ASEAN upgraded China to the status of a “comprehensive dialogue partner” in 1996， thus opening up a new process of cooperation between the two sides. In 1997， the leaders of China and ASEAN countries had their first direct dialogue. The two sides issued a joint declaration， defining their relations as“partnership of good-neighborliness and mutual trust for the 21st century.”2 Good neighborliness and mutual trust became the new coordinate for the development of China-ASEAN relations.

In the 21st century， China-ASEAN relations have been further deepened and improved， as reflected in the construction of China-ASEAN Free Trade Area， the signing of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea in 2002， further consultation on a code of conduct in the South China Sea， the signing by China in 2003 of the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia， the establishment of a strategic partnership for peace and prosperity with ASEAN in 2003， and the dispatchment of a Chinese ambassador to ASEAN in 2008. At the same time， China actively participated in the ASEANChina （10+1） dialogue mechanism， the ASEAN-China-Japan-ROK （10+3） cooperation mechanism， the East Asia Summit （10+8）， the ASEAN Regional Forum （ARF）， the ASEAN Defense Minister’s Meeting Plus （ADMM+）， the Asia Cooperation Dialogue， the Asia-Europe Meeting （ASEM）， and the Forum for East Asia-Latin America Cooperation. China also supported ASEAN centrality as well as ASEAN’s leading role in these cooperation mechanisms.

Under the new situation， China and ASEAN have been expanding and deepening their cooperation. They have signed an upgraded protocol to improve the original Framework Agreement for China-ASEAN Free Trade Area， expanded cooperation fields under the “2+7” cooperation framework，3 promoted construction under the Belt and Road Initiative （BRI）， and advanced the building of a China-ASEAN community of common destiny. In particular， after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic， China and ASEAN have been strengthening cooperation in epidemic prevention and control， and promoting economic recovery as well as vaccine distribution and inoculation. They have reached consensus on all-round cooperation and concrete actions through frequent dialogues including foreign ministers’ meetings and leaders’ online meetings. The China-ASEAN cooperation in epidemic prevention and control and on economic recovery has become a global model. Amid the pandemic， trade and investment between the two sides have grown against the downward global trend， making them the largest trading partner of each other.

Looking back on the past 30 years of China-ASEAN dialogue， the most important lesson is that the two sides have always firmly adhered to the general direction of dialogue and cooperation no matter what changes take place. As Chinese Ambassador to ASEAN Deng Xijun pointed out in an article commemorating the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations，“China and ASEAN countries hold dear the tradition of mutual respect and mutual assistance and the wisdom of seeking common ground while shelving differences and resolving disagreements through dialogue and consultation.”4 The dialogue and cooperation between China and ASEAN have created a new type of cooperative partnership， and this kind of cooperation-oriented international relations represents a new civilization of cooperation.

Valuable Experience in China-ASEAN Cooperation

The past three decades of dialogue and cooperation between China and ASEAN has not only benefited both sides， but more importantly also turned a region congested with hostility， conflicts and confrontation into a friendly， stable， peaceful and thriving place. Summing up experience of the three decades of China-ASEAN dialogue and cooperation， the following points deserve our attention.

Dialogue as a common value

The dialogue between China and ASEAN is based on their common understanding to enhance mutual understanding and appreciation through dialogue， and to seek cooperation on this basis. Great differences exist between China and ASEAN countries in history， politics， economy and culture， but they remain inseparable neighbors. After all， a good relationship benefits both sides， and neither would gain if the ties were broken.

ASEAN is a regional organization. China conducts dialogues with ASEAN for the purpose of promoting its relations with all Southeast Asian countries and building up mechanisms for their cooperation. ASEAN itself has good and successful experience in promoting cooperation through dialogue. Given the huge differences between its member states in politics， economy， religion and culture， dialogue and cooperation are necessary to achieve win-win outcomes. The essence of the “ASEAN style” is also dialogue and cooperation， bringing all countries together for the sake of mutual benefit and a peaceful， cooperative and prosperous Southeast Asia.

While dialogue is the basic value recognized by ASEAN members， China， as a major developing country firmly taking the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics， has also consistently regarded dialogue and cooperation as the fundamental way to develop its relations with other countries. China firmly believes that only on the basis of in-depth dialogue can countries truly enhance understanding， reach consensus， and carry out practical， effective and mutually beneficial cooperation. The term “dialogue”seems simple， but it has a profound meaning. China and ASEAN have always insisted on resolving contradictions and handling disputes through dialogue， and achieving mutual benefit through cooperation， which reflects their shared consensus-based value.

Take the South China Sea issue for example. It is both sensitive and thorny in China-ASEAN relations， and the disputes concerned are difficult to resolve in a short time. Only through dialogue can a strategic consensus be reached on stabilizing the overall situation and preventing conflicts from breaking out and damaging comprehensive relations between the two sides. The South China Sea disputes only involve China and a few ASEAN members. Although ASEAN does not have the ability to resolve the disputes， it can act as a representative in safeguarding the overall interests of Southeast Asia. In fact， China conducts dialogue with ASEAN on the South China Sea issue based on this consensus， which includes both the overall interests of ASEAN itself as well as the overall interests of China-ASEAN relations. Through patient and sincere dialogues， China and ASEAN have jointly issued the Declaration of Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea （DOC）， making a commitment to “resolv[ing] their territorial and jurisdictional disputes by peaceful means … through friendly consultations and negotiations by sovereign states directly concerned，” “exercis[ing] selfrestraint in the conduct of activities that would complicate or escalate disputes and affect peace and stability，” and “in the spirit of cooperation and understanding，” “explor[ing] or undertak[ing] cooperative activities”such as marine environmental protection， search and rescue operation， and combating transnational crime.5

Political mutual trust is essential for China and ASEAN to develop cooperative relations. When there are huge differences and disputes between the two sides， it is not easy to establish sustainable political mutual trust. Particularly， the establishment of political trust is mutual process. That is， both sides should have confidence and patience with each other， and persist in dealing with problems through dialogue and cooperation. Since China and ASEAN established a strategic partnership in 2003， the two sides have jointly formulated a number of documents and action agendas， gradually strengthening the basis of the strategic partnership. Although China-ASEAN relations have experienced ups and downs and encountered many challenges， the two sides have remained true to their original aspirations in difficult times and maintained a stable and cooperative overall situation. The China-ASEAN strategic partnership has stood the test of time.

Mutual respect as a common culture

China and ASEAN countries have their own ways of system building and governance， with different development paths based on their respective national conditions. Both sides strive to advance their relationship in a way consistent with their own interests. Therefore， only by respecting each other’s choices can they truly carry out equal dialogue and promote mutually beneficial cooperation. Mutual respect is an internal consciousness： it is a kind of awareness， and also a morality. A culture based on the endogenous consciousness is essentially different from some countries’ patronizing and condescending attitude.

Of course， respect is by no means unprincipled acceptance， but rather recognition and support for acts that are in line with common interests and conventions that conform to the basic norms of international relations. China and ASEAN have a high degree of agreement on the basic principles of stateto-state relations. China highly appreciates the basic principles adhered to by ASEAN， which include： respect for the independence， sovereignty， equality， territorial integrity and national identity of all member states； reliance on peaceful settlement of disputes； non-interference in the internal affairs of member states； and enhanced consultations on matters seriously affecting the common interest of ASEAN. China also recognizes the fundamental principles of “renunciation of the threat or use of force” and “settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful means” enshrined in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia， and becomes the first non-ASEAN country to sign the treaty.6 China recognizes ASEAN centrality， and it has always supported ASEAN to play a leading role in regional affairs， and actively participated in ASEAN-established cooperation mechanisms， such as a series of ASEAN+ mechanisms， the ARF， and the ASEAN-initiated Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement （RCEP）. In turn， ASEAN respects China’s political system， supports China’s role as a major country in the world， and stands by China in many Chinese initiatives， especially the BRI and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank （AIIB）. Moreover， ASEAN does not take sides between China and the United States， and supports ChinaUS dialogue and cooperation.

It is with mutual respect that China and ASEAN have formed a good atmosphere of “harmony in diversity” and “seeking common ground while shelving differences，” and effectively carried out mutually beneficial cooperation on the basis of mutual understanding. In the expert research and evaluation on the China-ASEAN Free Trade Area， China took ASEAN as a whole to advance the negotiation， which was unprecedented at the time， since the ten ASEAN countries were very much diversified in their interests and market access. For China， it was a realistic challenge to comprehensively consider their different concerns and capabilities. At that time， most ASEAN countries were just battered by the Asian financial crisis， and their economic recovery was in an initial stage. Some countries were worried that opening up the market to China would result in capital outflow. Particularly， the less-developed ASEAN members were concerned about a takeover or even monopoly of local markets by Chinese commodities. Under such a situation， China proposed to start the FTA construction with the Early Harvest Program， that is to open up first agricultural product markets， from which underdeveloped ASEAN countries are likely to benefit， support ASEAN members to expand exports to China， take special care of the underdeveloped ASEAN members in terms of market opening arrangements and give them a longer grace period. China chose to negotiate easier issues before the difficult ones step-by-step and signed a comprehensive economic cooperation agreement with ASEAN in support of regional countries’ economic development.7 It is precisely because China has taken good care of the interests of ASEAN countries that it became the first country to sign an FTA agreement with ASEAN as a whole.

Cooperation as the basis of consensus

Through multi-dimensional， multi-way and multi-field cooperation， China and ASEAN have achieved the goals of cooperative coexistence， cooperative development and cooperative security. Only with a consensus on win-win cooperation in place can the two sides further deepen their relationship. In fact， for China and ASEAN， cooperation is not a means， but an end in itself， that is， the development of state-to-state relations is oriented toward cooperation rather than confrontation. Guided by the civilization of cooperation， China and ASEAN countries regard cooperative coexistence， cooperative development and cooperative security as the basic concepts of developing and deepening relations.

ASEAN was first established to achieve regional peace and development through cooperation， and delivering win-win outcomes is the basic tenet for its member states to participate in regional cooperation. China and ASEAN also share this consensus of cooperation. China’s diplomacy is rooted in a culture of harmony， which is fully embodied in principles and initiatives such as the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence， “fostering an amicable， secure and prosperous neighborhood，” “amity， sincerity， mutual benefit and inclusiveness，” and the building of a community with a shared future for mankind. Therefore， China and ASEAN have been committed to cooperation based on a common tenet to achieve win-win outcomes.

Cooperative development is the most fruitful area of China-ASEAN cooperation， especially reflected in the building of FTA. Nowadays， the trade in goods between the two sides has basically achieved zero tariff， and the openness of trade in services and investment has been continuously enhanced along with the upgrading of FTA agreements. The two sides， as each other’s most important trade and investment partner， have basically built a rulesbased and open economic development zone.

China and ASEAN countries have been steadily expanding their cooperation in infrastructure construction， power， water resources and other fields， which are all necessary conditions for economic development. Due to the large amount of capital needed and a usually long construction period， enterprises are often reluctant to get involved in these projects or do not have the capacity to invest. Inter-governmental cooperation can then help solve the bottleneck of infrastructure development. For example， by synergizing the BRI and special cooperation funds， China and ASEAN have greatly accelerated the construction of power stations and main transportation lines in regional countries， which has greatly improved the countries’ overall development environment. Despite some criticism about the Belt and Road construction initiated and pushed by China， ASEAN countries have given extensive support to and actively participated in and promoted the cooperation.

The Lancang-Mekong cooperation mechanism （LMC） is another example of win-win cooperation. Against the conventional perception that countries on the upper and lower reaches of a river would be mired in quarrels with each other over water， China and downstream countries of Cambodia， Laos， Myanmar， Thailand and Vietnam have developed harmonious relations and achieved common development through effective cooperation. Since its launch in 2016， the LMC has developed rapidly and achieved remarkable results. It has vigorously promoted the economic and social development of the six riparian countries and brought tangible benefits to the people of all countries. China has provided loan support for more than 40 major infrastructure projects in Mekong countries， including roads and airports， power stations and power grids， and industrial parks. The LMC Special Fund established by China has supported more than 500 projects benefiting people in agriculture， health， poverty reduction， environment and other areas. Over the past five years， more than 20，000 students from the five Mekong countries have studied in China on Chinese government scholarships.8

In short， under a complicated and volatile international situation， China and ASEAN have stayed committed to the direction of dialogue and cooperation and have opened up new vistas， which is very commendable. As a“dual structure” or “dual track，” the dialogue and cooperation between China and ASEAN is conducted not only between China and individual ASEAN member states， but also between China and ASEAN as a whole.9 To strive to synergize the “Chinese way” with the “ASEAN way” is the characteristic approach for the two sides to develop and deepen their relations.10

Facing the Future and Creating New Prospects Together

The world is permeated with various contradictions and undergoing profound changes unseen in a century. International relations and balance of power are in a period of major adjustment. The future development of China-ASEAN relations is also facing many challenges. New thinking， new strategies and new wisdom are needed for new situations， new problems and new goals.

Jointly responding to uncertainties and risks

Among the multiple aspects of the once-in-a-century great changes， the transformation in the balance of power would most likely bring about contradictions and conflicts， and threaten peace and development. In history， there is no lack of conflicts and even large-scale wars resulting from shifting balance of power， especially among major powers. In the current evolution of international power configuration， the most prominent phenomenon is the collective rise of non-Western countries， including China and ASEAN. This has caused alert and panic from Western developed countries， and they have resorted to unilateral policies to block and suppress these potential competitors. Specifically， they have labeled some emerging countries as “totalitarian，” “nonmarket economy” and accused them of conducting “technology theft.” They have even depicted the conflicts as “a clash of civilizations.” Among the changes in the balance of power， the most noticeable is the rapid rise of China’s overall national strength， which makes the United States believe that China is intent on replacing the US and dominating the world. Therefore， it has defined China as a strategic rival， carried out confrontational strategic competition with China， taken various measures to suppress， block and sanction China， and tried to set up an anti-China coalition both in China’s neighborhood and around the world. In Asia， the US is building a new network of alliances and partners with its Indo-Pacific strategy and the Quad mechanism as the pillar， in an attempt to mount additional pressure on China’s development. This will inevitably aggravate regional tensions and confrontation.

In this case， China and ASEAN need to work together to manage a stable bilateral relationship. On the one hand， they should stick to the general direction of dialogue and cooperation and consolidate the foundation for peace and development. On the other hand， they should make joint efforts to build a new type of international relations featuring openness， inclusiveness and cooperation， and make cooperation a mainstream value. In a time of great changes， all parties， with their own different choices， will try to develop relations and cooperation mechanisms in various fronts. What is important is that China and ASEAN， whose dialogue and cooperation is not targeted at any third party， are committed to maintaining their mutually beneficial cooperation， and alleviating and reducing conflicts and confrontation by jointly participating in and promoting diversified dialogues and cooperation mechanisms. Therefore， it is of great significance for China and ASEAN to maintain their mutual trust and cooperation in order to safeguard peace and development in Asia and especially the Asia-Pacific region. The ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific， issued by ASEAN in 2019， clearly envisions“an Indo-Pacific region of dialogue and cooperation instead of rivalry，”and envisages ASEAN centrality as the underlying principle for promoting cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region.11 And the security mechanism set up by the Quad countries with China as their rival surely runs contrary to ASEAN’s willingness to enhance economic ties with China.12

In the information age， China and ASEAN need to enhance the influence of their discourse. In terms of international public opinion， due to the strong guiding force of the positions of the United States and other Western developed countries， many of their misleading statements with strategic intentions are likely to lead to misunderstandings and contradictions between China and ASEAN. Therefore， the two sides have to strengthen cooperation in information and media communication. They can establish a platform for strategic dialogue under existing mechanisms， launch joint media projects， and issue research reports to enhance the influence of the successful experience of China-ASEAN cooperation.

Deepening cooperation in various fields

On the 15th anniversary of the establishment of China-ASEAN strategic partnership in 2018， the two sides adopted the document “China-ASEAN Strategic Partnership Vision 2030，” which proposed to “advance the ASEANChina Strategic Partnership to new heights by forging closer cooperation for a mutually beneficial future of ASEAN and China.” In the Vision， detailed plans were worked out to deepen cooperation in politics and security， economic and cultural exchanges， and guiding principles and action plans were put forward to promote closer ties and the construction of a China-ASEAN community with a shared future.13 In the future， the top priority is to ensure the success of China-ASEAN cooperation. This includes building a peaceful and secure China-ASEAN relationship with the goal of common and cooperative security， building a sustainable and prosperous China-ASEAN relationship with the goal of common and cooperative development， and building a China-ASEAN relationship of mutual trust and mutual assistance based on people-to-people bonds and harmonious coexistence.

At present and in the future， China and ASEAN are confronted with the strategic test of properly handling the new situation in the South China Sea. As the United States and its allies step up meddling in the South China Sea issue and bring China-US strategic competition into the region， the two sides should persist in resolving disputes through dialogue and cooperation and upholding the overall interests of openness， peace and cooperation in the South China Sea.14 In the China-ASEAN Strategic Partnership Vision 2030， the two sides made clear commitments to “maintaining and promoting peace， security， stability and safety in the South China Sea，” reiterating “respect for and commitment to … freedom of navigation in and over-flight above the South China Sea … resolve the territorial and jurisdictional disputes by peaceful means， without resorting to the threat or use of force， through friendly consultations and negotiations by sovereign states directly concerned， and in accordance with universally-recognized principles of international law including the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea， and… exercise self-restraint in the conduct of activities， to avoid complicating or escalating disputes and disrupting peace and stability.” Moreover， they reaffirmed their commitment to “fully and effectively implementing the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea in its entirety， and work towards the early conclusion and adoption of a substantive and effective Code of Conduct in the South China Sea （COC） based on consensus.”15 Although the COC is not aimed at resolving South China Sea disputes， it is of practical significance in restraining behavior， preventing disputes and maintaining peace.16 As long as China and ASEAN are firm in their commitments， the overall security situation in the South China Sea can be guaranteed. To enhance mutual trust between China and ASEAN countries in the South China Sea， more practical arrangements and actions could be taken in ensuring freedom of navigation and over-flight， providing more maritime public goods， and making coordinated patrols.

In order to consolidate the basis of peace and security between China and ASEAN， both sides have to make more efforts in building security cooperation mechanisms， and gradually construct a security assurance system supported by more substantive content and a permanent institution to play an effective role in ensuring common and cooperative security. This system would operate at multiple levels， reflect the characteristics of China-ASEAN cooperation， be oriented to solving specific problems， adhere to the principle of effectiveness， and be based on cooperative actions.

Joining hands to promote innovative development

Development is of paramount importance. Both China and ASEAN are faced with the new task of innovating development models and achieving sustainable development. As a developing region， there are still large gaps both in the infrastructure connectivity within the ASEAN region and in the connectivity of the China-ASEAN open development region. To bridge the gaps requires further planning， and formulation and implementation of action agendas. More importantly， given the unsustainability of traditional modes of development， it is necessary to innovate development models， update development concepts， and realize the transition to a new development paradigm. In this sense， the cooperative development between China and ASEAN has entered a new stage， that is， the stage of sustainable cooperative development. Whether in policy formulation， or project planning and implementation， the two sides must transcend conventional approaches of industrial transfer and make up a new agenda of cooperative development.

Looking to the future， China’s economy will demonstrate two trends. First， its GDP will continue to grow， and it is expected to get out of the“middle-income trap” and become the largest economy in the world. Second， China will innovate its development model， increase the application of new technologies guided by new development concepts， and gradually build a new and sustainable development structure. The prospect of China’s development is an opportunity for ASEAN’s development. Through cooperation， China’s sustainable development strategy could be synergized with ASEAN’s development plans， boosting a new round of growth in the ASEAN region. Specifically， China’s new development pattern of “dual circulation” aims to focus on the domestic market， enhance the innovation-driven capacity and realize a transformation in development paradigm. Its 14th Five-Year Plan further lays out specific plans for implementing the new development pattern. Given this， the cooperative development between China and ASEAN in the future not only has large space for further expansion， but also contains strong driving momentum. Considering various factors， the China-ASEAN region is expected to become the development center of Asia and the world at large.

To achieve a bright future of China-ASEAN cooperative development， the two sides need to further enhance political mutual trust， strengthen policy communication， promote people-to-people exchanges， remove interference and deepen cooperation with sincerity. In the development of their relations， the two sides need in particular to listen to each other’s views in the face of a complex situation. Even if there are differences and contradictions， they should stick to communication and consultation to ensure their cooperative relations grow in a steady and sustainable way.

Again as an old Chinese saying goes， “Gain new insights by reviewing the past.” Reflecting on the experience and achievements in the development of China-ASEAN relations and looking into the future of the relationship， we have every reason to believe that any difficulties can be overcome and the future of China-ASEAN relations will be even brighter as long as the general direction of dialogue and cooperation is upheld.

1 On September 27， 1989， Vietnam withdrew its troops from Cambodia and the Cambodian Peace Agreement was signed on October 23， 1991. China has played an important role in resolving the Cambodian issue and in building regional peace.

2 “Joint Statement of the Meeting of Heads of State/Government of the Member States of ASEAN and the？President？of？the？People’s？Republic？of？China，”？ASEAN，？December？16，？1997，？https：//asean.org/？static_ post=joint-statement-of-the-meeting-of-heads-of-stategovernment-of-the-member-states-of-asean-and-thepresident-of-the-people-s-republic-of-china-kuala-lumpur-malaysia-16-december-1997.

3 Proposed by Chinese Premier Li Keqiang at a meeting with ASEAN leaders in 2013， the “2+7”cooperation framework consists of a two-point political consensus， namely enhancing strategic trust and promoting economic cooperation， and seven cooperation fields including trade facilitation， interconnectivity and security exchanges， among others.

4 Deng Xijun， “China-ASEAN Relations： Thirty Years on and Beyond，” The Jakarta Post， January 14， 2021， https：//www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2021/01/14/china-asean-relations-thirty-years-on-andbeyond.html.

5 “Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea，” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China， November 4， 2002， https：//www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/gjs_665170/ gjzzyhy_665174/2608_665204/2610_665208/t15311.shtml.

6 “Charter of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations，” ASEAN， https：//www.asean.org/storage/ images/archive/21069.pdf； “Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia，” ASEAN， https：//asean. org/treaty-amity-cooperation-southeast-asia-indonesia-24-february-1976.

7 “Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Between ASEAN and the People’s Republic？of？China，”？ASEAN，？November？4，？2002，？https：//asean.org/？static_post=framework-agreement-oncomprehensive-economic-co-operation-between-asean-and-the-people-s-republic-of-china-phnom-penh-4-november-2002-4.

8 “Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hua Chunying’s Regular Press Conference on March 23， 2021，”Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China， March 23， 2021， https：//www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xwfw_665399/ s2510_665401/t1863508.shtml.

9 The dual-track approach was first proposed to address the South China Sea issue， but it is also a useful perspective for the development of China-ASEAN comprehensive relations.

10 Zhang Yunling， “ASEAN 50 Years： Exploration and Progress on the Way Forward，” World Economics and Politics， No.7， 2017.

11 “ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific，” ASEAN， https：//asean.org/storage/2019/06/ASEAN-Outlookon-the-Indo-Pacific_FINAL_22062019.pdf.

12？Yogesh？Joshi，？“Will？the？Quad’s？Focus？on？Vaccines，？Rare？Earths？Help？It？Win？Friends？in？Asean？”？South China Morning Post， March 18， 2021， https：//www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3125837/willquads-focus-vaccines-rare-earths-help-it-win-friends-asean.

13 “ASEAN-China Strategic Partnership Vision 2030，” ASEAN， https：//asean.org/storage/2018/11/ ASEAN-China-Strategic-Partnership-Vision-2030.pdf.

14 Thomas Daniel， “US-China Tensions and the Future of ASEAN，” https：//valdaiclub.com/a/highlights/ us-china-tensions-and-the-future-of-asean.

15 “ASEAN-China Strategic Partnership Vision 2030，”

16？Lee？Yinghui，？“A？South？China？Sea？Code？of？Conduct：？Is？Real？Progress？Possible？？A？Closer？Look？at？Steps？ toward Finalizing A long-anticipated Code of Conduct，” The Diplomat， https：//thediplomat.com/2017/11/asouth-china-sea-code-of-conduct-is-real-progress-possible.