A Cross—cultural Comparison： Similarities in Belief Systems between Navajo sand Tibetans

次仁德吉++白瑪?shù)录?/p>

In the world in which we live， people of different origins and backgrounds have created different cultures based on their own ways of living， behaviors， values， and traditions. One of the wonders of humanity is that some cultures even though geographically distant share a lot in common. Navajos and Tibetans are a case in point. As Peter Gold， who has been studying these two groups for many years suggests Navajos and Tibetan geographically living far away from each other， but they are remarkably similar in their belief system. It is probably due to their relationship to the earth. The essential notions of these two spiritual systems are in harmony with the natural world and other people.

From a personal level， I have had people telling me they would definitely mistaken me for a Navajo which really intrigued me. Furthermore， when I met a Navajo in person and talked to him while eating a special kind of Navajo bread made by him really reminded me of the very kind of bread that we make at home， I felt a strong connection. Curiosity kills the cat. I started searching for information about Navajos and found similarities between Tibetans and Navajos not only in physical appearance but also in many other aspects. These two groups are well known for their devotion to their beliefs and these belief systems have a profound impact on their daily lives. Discovering these remarkably similar aspects is intriguing - especially for someone who belongs to one of these groups. In this article， I will focus on three similarities between Navajos and Tibetans：belief systems， uses of turquoise， and sand painting.

Belief systems

There are obvious similarities shared by Navajos and Tibetans， especially in the aspect of spiritual life. The lives of both groups are intimately connected to the extraordinary land on which they live. Tibetans live on the highest plateau in the world surrounded by towering mountains， the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Similarly， Navajos live on the plateaus of North America covering 13 million acres in Arizona， New Mexico， and Utah. Both Navajos and Tibetans use arid agriculture farming techniques and herd livestock in a nomadic life style.

Navajo people also refer to themselves as Diné in the Navajo language. It means“the people”. The pronunciation of this word， to Tibetans， sounds like“from here” in the Tibetan language. Whereas， there are no scientific or linguistic studies to show there is a connection between the Navajo language and the Tibetan language. However， there is concrete evidence in Peter Golds book Navajo and Tibetan Sacred Wisdom：The Circle of the Spirit that Navajos and Tibetans share much in common in their belief systems and ways of living.endprint

Navajo traditional belief is a form of animism in which they worship the wind， water sources， and mountains. They worship a number of gods. They believe these gods occasionally intervene in human affairs， and they frequently invoke these gods. Navajos make offerings to these gods， and perform ceremonial dances in which the gods are represented by painted and masked men. Navajos greatly emphasize keeping a balance between nature and the inner-self. This is also an important aspect in Tibetan Buddhist beliefs. In E.J. Flemings book review， he writes， If a Navajo is to be truly healthy and happy， beauty must dominate his thought and speech， and harmony must permeate his environment. Beauty flows from the mind or inner form of a person. Navajos have radiant personalities and the beauty they have within themselves seems to radiate from the inner core of their being. （Fleming， 1997）

Tibetan Buddhists also emphasize creating a harmonious environment between human beings and nature. Tibetan Buddhism is quite different from other forms of Buddhism because it has integrated many ideas and practices from an ancient Tibetan religion called Bon. Bon also could be categorized as a form of animism. Therefore， many Tibetan Buddhists also worship holy mountains and lakes in Tibet. For example， countless pilgrims visit Mount Kailash and Lake Namtso every year. Born into a Tibetan family， I was taught since a young age the importance of the environment around me. Many parents teach their children that if they pollute the environment or wastewater， they will accumulate bad karma. In this way， most Tibetan children are taught to keep a balance between themselves and their surrounding environment.

Environment and life style have a profound impact on forming a belief system. From earlier discussion， one can see that this is quite true in Navajo and Tibetan cultures. Navajos believe in nature， and they hold several major mountains to be holy. They call the soil below， “mother earth.” Likewise， Tibetan Buddhists emphasize the importance of keeping balance between individuals and nature. In fact， both religions stress the importance of keeping a balance between nature and the inner-self. Van Sluijs and Sharon M. in their book review conclude：

In the less visible realm of spiritual traditions， the parallels and similarities between the Navajo and Tibetans become striking. Both people believe that humans contain an inborn divinity， though this aspect many be obstructed by deluded thinking and unbalanced living. Their spiritual practices speak to awakening， nurturing， and realizing that divine state. A man or woman who attains this state also comes to see the entire world as a harmonious， balanced cosmos in which everything is interconnected， meaningful， and beautiful. The Navajo-or Denie—call this“The Beauty Way”：Bikehhazho， the ideal state of being. In Buddhism， one attains enlightenment， or in Tibetan sangye se， ones“Buddha nature.”（Sluijs and Sharon M.， 1996）endprint

Turquoise use in daily life

Besides similar belief systems， Navajos and Tibetans are also comparable in their use of turquoise in daily life. Tibetan and Navajo traditional turquoise jewelry is amazingly similar. In addition to both women and men using turquoise ornamentally， both cultures also consider turquoise a special stone possessing supernatural power to protect human beings. Although this has not been proven scientifically， the people from these two traditions deeply believe in this special stone. By comparing the pictures below， one can easily see the shared patterns and ideas. It is extraordinary to discover such similarities between two societies geographically so far apart.

A Tibetan pendant A Navajobracelet

An old Navajo man A young Tibetan girl

Tibetans throughout their history have appreciated， valued， and worn turquoise， or“Gyu” （pronounced as“yu”） as jewelry. Both men and women wear turquoise jewelry as earrings， finger rings， belt-buckles， head dresses， and pendants. Commonly， turquoise is set in gold or silver with coral and other precious gemstones. Tibetans utilize turquoise in the preservation of family wealth and in ritual and medicinal practices. For example， Tibetans believe that people can lose their souls because of a traumatic experience. A special ritual called“LaguTsanggu” should be performed on such people. The ritual aims at bringing peoples souls back to them. One of the most important elements in this ritual is a piece of turquoise which people will wear for the rest of their lives. Tibetans also use turquoise along with many other gemstones to decorate images of Buddha and altars. From this， we can understand the uniqueness of turquoise in Tibetan culture.

Navajos also regard turquoise as a precious stone in their culture. Like Tibetans， they use turquoise as jewelry：earrings， bracelets， finger rings， and necklaces. They as well use turquoise for healing. Native Americans， Navajos included， refer to turquoise as“sky stone.” To Native Americans， turquoise is life. Special stones such as turquoise have healing power. Turquoise， in particular， is known to provide positive healing energy； to aid in mental functions， communications and expression； and to protect. In Native American culture as in Tibetan as well， a crack in the turquoise worn by a person indicates that the turquoise protected the wearer from a hazardous blow.

In summary， Navajos and Tibetans view and use turquoise in many similar ways. Navajos and Tibetans both associate turquoise with the sky. As stated previously， Navajos call it， “sky stone.” Similarly， in Tibetan literature， turquoise is used to describe the color of natural objects such as the sky， beautiful lakes， wells， and flowers. Both Navajos and Tibetans believe that wearing turquoise can remove some diseases from peoples bodies and protect peoples health. Both cultures consider turquoise to be holy and a protector of human beings.endprint

Sand Painting

As shown above， Navajos and Tibetans share much in common. What is yet more remarkable is that both cultures share a religious art form called sand-painting and many aspects of it are similar. In Tibetan culture， sand painting is used to depict various mandalas thus giving them the name“sand mandalas.” Sand-painting in both cultures are to be used only once. Both share a highly symmetrical design with a focus on the center. Both forms of sand-paintings are divided into four quadrants and often use symbols to depict gods. In a lecture， Dr. David Otto stated， “Like Tibetan mandalas， Navajo sand painting represents a sacred cosmology， uses color associations， and possesses an outer （universal） and inner （human body） perspective”.（Otto， ……）

Tibetan sand painting Navajo sand painting

In Tibetan culture， mandalas are common forms of religious art and expression that can be seen in temples and monasteries. Sand mandalas are just one form of the mandala. Tibetan Buddhists believe that mandalas symbolize the universe. As Martin Kemp describes in his article， “Heaven in grains of sand：Nanoscientists and Tibetan monks unite to explore the mysteries of the mandala”， “Mandalas expresses the cosmological world system， whereas the inner zones characteristically progress to the realm of the highest deities. Dense， with map-like features， from grand structures to tiny symbolic details， mandalas serve the spiritual exercise of diligently sustained contemplation”.（Kemp， 2007） Sand mandalas take many days or even months to create and are created by well-trained Tibetan Buddhist monks. However， once a sand mandala is created， it will be destroyed and the sand offered to a nearby river or lake to remind people of the impermanence of life and the material world.

Navajos also create a kind of sand-painting that is similar to the Tibetan sand mandala. Navajo sand-painting are considered one of the most important forms of art in Native American cultures. Navajo sand paintings are referred to as iikaah in the Navajo language meaning a place where gods come and go. The sand-paintings are used during Chantway rituals to restore balance to the universe （Hozo）. There are three Chantway ceremonies in Navajo religious practice. These are Blessingway， Holyway， and Evilway. Blessingway is performed to rebalance the cosmos. Holyway is performed after improper contact with gods or supernatural forces. Evilway is performed after improper contact with ghosts or witches. Navajo sand paintings can only be constructed under the direction of a“singer” who is trained by the Dine （the supernaturals， or Holy people）.endprint

As stated earlier， Tibetan sand mandalas and Navajo sand paintings share in common physical similarities as well as underlying beliefs about the universe. Turquoise is not only perceived by both peoples as a kind of jewelry but also as a gemstone possessing supernatural powers of healing. Tibetans and Navajos live so far apart geographically and yet they share striking similarities in：religious beliefs， the use of turquoise， and sand paintings. I believe that it is a shared belief system that ties them so closely together.

References：

[1]Kemp，M.（2007）Heaven in grains of sand：Nanoscientists and Tibetan monks unite to explore the mysteries of the mandala.Books & Arts，449，146.

[2]Fleming，E.J.（1997，March 8）.Navajo and Tibetan sacred wisdom.[Review of the book Navajo and Tibetan Sacred Wisdom：The circle of the spirit by Peter Gold].Theosophy World.

[3]Otto，David.Healing the world，healing the self：Comparing sand painting in Tibetan and Navajo Traditions.Sluijs，V.and Sharon M.（1996，November）[Review of the book Navajo and Tibetan Sacred Wisdom：The circle of the spirit by Peter Gold].Parabola，XXI，4.

[4]Scarlet，P and Tribune，SL.（1991，December 14）.Navajo and Tibetans share views，speaker says.The Salt Lake Tribune.Retrieved from EBSCO.

[5]Berio，J.C.（2014，September）.Navajo Sandpainting in the age of cross-cultural replication.Art History，37，4，688-707.

[6]The American Indian Heritage Foundation.Turquoise.Retrieved on December 3rd，2015 from http：//www.indians.org/articles/turquoise.html.

[7]賀曉亞.淺談藏族配飾文化的特點[J].遼寧絲綢，2014（2）：31-32.endprint