(南京師范大學(xué)文學(xué)院,江蘇南京210097)
尚永璨
快速命名(RAN)與閱讀障礙
(南京師范大學(xué)文學(xué)院,江蘇南京210097)
尚永璨
RAN已經(jīng)成為預(yù)測(cè)兒童閱讀障礙的最有價(jià)值的因素之一。其與語(yǔ)音加工和正字法的關(guān)系是焦點(diǎn):前者上,一是二者對(duì)閱讀障礙的預(yù)測(cè)作用強(qiáng)弱,多數(shù)觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為語(yǔ)音意識(shí)的作用更突出;二是二者的相互關(guān)系,部分認(rèn)為RAN應(yīng)該歸為語(yǔ)音加工的一部分;而包括雙重缺陷理論在內(nèi)的研究結(jié)果表明RAN獨(dú)立于語(yǔ)音加工技能的,但持此觀點(diǎn)的也未厘清二者在閱讀障礙中的相對(duì)作用,所以兩種觀點(diǎn)都有待進(jìn)一步研究。后者上,研究認(rèn)為造成閱讀能力低下的認(rèn)知過(guò)程在于正字法表征的缺陷和形音之間聯(lián)系形成的障礙;在正字法透明的語(yǔ)言中,RAN的作用比語(yǔ)音加工更重要,且與反應(yīng)時(shí)間之間的聯(lián)系比和流暢度更密切。此外,部分關(guān)于RAN和閱讀能力相互關(guān)系的縱向研究表明二者間的關(guān)系隨年齡增長(zhǎng)有更明顯的趨勢(shì)。最后在RAN對(duì)閱讀兩個(gè)成分(字詞閱讀和閱讀理解)的貢獻(xiàn)上尚存爭(zhēng)議,部分認(rèn)為對(duì)兩個(gè)成分都有貢獻(xiàn),部分認(rèn)為僅對(duì)單詞識(shí)別有預(yù)測(cè)作用。
快速命名(RAN)閱讀障礙語(yǔ)音加工正字法
閱讀障礙(Reading Disability,簡(jiǎn)稱RD)分為獲得性閱讀障礙障礙(Accquired Dyslexia,簡(jiǎn)稱AD)和發(fā)展性閱讀障礙(Developmental Dyslexia,簡(jiǎn)稱DD)。前者指的是由于后天腦損傷或疾病引起的閱讀困難;后者是指“某些兒童具有正常的智力水平和接受教育的機(jī)會(huì),沒(méi)有明顯的神經(jīng)或器質(zhì)上的損傷,卻在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)閱讀測(cè)驗(yàn)上的成績(jī)顯著低于正常讀者”(Habib,M 2000)[1]2373-2399。一般說(shuō)的閱讀障礙指的是后者,也是本文所指。Stevenson H W等(1982)[2]1164-1181對(duì)漢語(yǔ)、日語(yǔ)、英語(yǔ)兒童進(jìn)行的研究顯示,學(xué)齡階段兒童閱讀障礙的發(fā)生率為5%-10%。Lagae(2008)[3]1259-1268對(duì)北美“智力正常,接受傳統(tǒng)的學(xué)校教育,擁有完整的聽(tīng)力、視力,以及足夠的積極性和社交機(jī)會(huì)”的閱讀障礙兒童進(jìn)行研究的結(jié)果表明,學(xué)齡階段的發(fā)生率為5%—12%。
薄弱的語(yǔ)音意識(shí)(Phonological Awareness,簡(jiǎn)稱PA)首先被證實(shí)為發(fā)展性閱讀障礙的主要原因之一,但是有些語(yǔ)音意識(shí)正常的兒童也具有閱讀障礙。后續(xù)的研究表明,快速命名(Rapid Automatized Naming,以下簡(jiǎn)稱RAN)上的缺陷或許也會(huì)導(dǎo)致閱讀障礙。
RAN的概念于1966年被Geschwind和Fusillo首次提出(Geschwind and Fusillo 1966)[4]137-146;隨后,Denckla和Rudel(1972)發(fā)展了RAN測(cè)試,指的是個(gè)體對(duì)物體、圖片、顏色、字母、數(shù)字盡可能快地進(jìn)行命名[5]164-176。也有其他術(shù)語(yǔ),比如:快速命名(Rapid Naming)、快速系列命名(Rapid Serial Naming)、系列命名(Serial Naming)等等。目前研究人員通常采取的測(cè)試方法有:RAN(Denckla,Rudel 1974)[6]186-202、RAN-RAS(Rapid Alternate Stimulus,快速交替刺激,Wolf and Denckla 2005)[7]、CTOPP(Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing,語(yǔ)音加工綜合測(cè)試,Wagner et al.1999))[8],這些測(cè)試根據(jù)研究視角的不同而有細(xì)微的差別。
Denckla and Rudel(1972,1974,1976)[9]將RAN作為閱讀能力的預(yù)測(cè)而進(jìn)行的一系列研究“推進(jìn)了RAN在教育范圍內(nèi)的研究領(lǐng)域”(Denckla and Cutting 1999)[10]29-42。部分研究已經(jīng)證明了RAN和閱讀準(zhǔn)確性之間的重要關(guān)聯(lián)(Neuhaus et al.2001)[11]490-504、RAN和閱讀理解力之間的關(guān)聯(lián)(Georgiou et al.2010[12]359-373;Neuhaus et al.2001[13]490-504)、RAN和閱讀速度之間的關(guān)系(Wimmer 1993)[14]1-34。這些與閱讀之間相關(guān)聯(lián)的強(qiáng)有力的證據(jù)已經(jīng)使得RAN被牢固確立為閱讀能力強(qiáng)有力的預(yù)測(cè)因素(Cardoso-Martins and Pennington 2004[15]27-52;de Jong and van der Leij 1999[16]450-476;Kirby et al.2003[17]453-464;Vaessen et al.2010[18]827-842;Verhagen et al.2010[19]59-80)。
Frijters et al.(2011)[20]150-166研究稱,和在典型發(fā)展的兒童身上得到的體現(xiàn)相比,RAN和閱讀之間的關(guān)聯(lián)在閱讀障礙兒童身上表現(xiàn)得更加明顯。RAN已經(jīng)成為預(yù)測(cè)兒童閱讀障礙的最有價(jià)值的因素之一(de Jong and van der Leij 2003[21]22-40.;Puolakanaho et al.2007[22]353-370)
Wolf和Denckla(2005)[23]曾提出,RAN的認(rèn)知構(gòu)成包括注意力感知覺(jué)、語(yǔ)義和運(yùn)動(dòng)加工。每一個(gè)部分對(duì)于RAN任務(wù)的完成都是至關(guān)重要的。而近期的研究的焦點(diǎn)則是,RAN測(cè)試中發(fā)音時(shí)間(Articulation Time)和停頓時(shí)間(Pause Time)的相對(duì)貢獻(xiàn)也是至關(guān)重要的。Neuhaus et al.(2001a)[24]490-504將停頓時(shí)間定義為“正確的連續(xù)發(fā)音間停頓時(shí)間的總合”,而將發(fā)音時(shí)間定義為“對(duì)于RAN任務(wù)中的刺激進(jìn)行反應(yīng)而正確發(fā)音的時(shí)間長(zhǎng)度的總合”。一些研究表明,停頓時(shí)間在有無(wú)閱讀障礙癥的兒童身上的表現(xiàn)有著明顯的差異。Cobbold et al.等(Cobbold et al.2003[25]165-176;Clarke et al.2005[26]73-86;Georgiou et al.2006[27]199-220)的研究表明:停頓時(shí)間比發(fā)音時(shí)間對(duì)閱讀能力有更好的預(yù)測(cè)作用。Neuhaus和Swank(2002)[28]158-174經(jīng)過(guò)一個(gè)被試規(guī)模較大的實(shí)驗(yàn)之后稱,在字母命名和實(shí)物命名任務(wù)中,停頓時(shí)間對(duì)閱讀障礙的預(yù)測(cè)作用遠(yuǎn)重要于發(fā)音時(shí)間。當(dāng)然,在一些研究結(jié)論中,也有支持發(fā)音時(shí)間的,這些沖突的觀點(diǎn)表明,應(yīng)該更加明確RAN的各個(gè)因素在閱讀能力預(yù)測(cè)中所占的比重。
語(yǔ)音加工(Phonological Processing)指的是個(gè)體對(duì)語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音信息的運(yùn)用技能。研究者發(fā)現(xiàn),有三種語(yǔ)音加工技能與閱讀能力呈正相關(guān):(1)語(yǔ)音意識(shí),(2)語(yǔ)音記憶,(3)獲取語(yǔ)音信息的速率。而語(yǔ)音意識(shí)被認(rèn)為是語(yǔ)音加工的主要技能。語(yǔ)音意識(shí)(Phonological Awareness),是一種有意識(shí)檢測(cè)并且操縱語(yǔ)音的能力(Liberman,Shankweiler 1985[29]8-17),是閱讀能力正常發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)。語(yǔ)音意識(shí)也包含不同的成分,比如首尾韻的感知和發(fā)音,音節(jié)的整合、分離和添加,音素的刪除、替換、位置辨別。所以,也有人將語(yǔ)音意識(shí)定義為“對(duì)言語(yǔ)中詞匯的語(yǔ)音結(jié)構(gòu)的敏感性或明確的意識(shí)”(Torgesen et al. 1994)[30]276-286。如前文所說(shuō),薄弱的語(yǔ)音意識(shí)(Phonological Awareness,簡(jiǎn)稱PA)首先被證實(shí)為閱讀障礙的主要原因之一。
有觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為,語(yǔ)音意識(shí)對(duì)閱讀的預(yù)測(cè)作用更突出。Wolf和Bowers(1999)[31]415-438以125名三到四年級(jí)的兒童為被試對(duì)象,分為兩組,分別為患有閱讀障礙癥和無(wú)閱讀障礙癥的兒童。研究結(jié)果表明:語(yǔ)音意識(shí)在兩組中對(duì)詞匯閱讀都是重要的預(yù)測(cè)因素;但是RAN只對(duì)患有閱讀障礙癥的兒童的閱讀能力有預(yù)測(cè)作用。
另一些研究者認(rèn)為,RAN任務(wù)主要評(píng)估的是對(duì)長(zhǎng)期記憶中存儲(chǔ)的語(yǔ)音信息進(jìn)行提取和復(fù)原的速率,或者說(shuō)是顯示通達(dá)記憶中的語(yǔ)音信息的速度,所以應(yīng)該和語(yǔ)音意識(shí)、語(yǔ)音記憶一起,被視為語(yǔ)音加工的一部分(Torgesen et al. 1994[32]276-286;Wagner and Torgesen 1987[33])。這一觀點(diǎn)也受到了挑戰(zhàn)。
Bowers和Wolf(1993)[34]69-85提出雙重缺陷理論(Double Deficit Hypothesis,簡(jiǎn)稱DDH),具有閱讀困難的兒童必有語(yǔ)音缺陷(尤其是語(yǔ)音意識(shí)缺陷)和命名缺陷中的一種或同時(shí)具有這兩種缺陷。他們認(rèn)為RAN至少在一定程度上是獨(dú)立于語(yǔ)音加工技能的。Cirino et al.(2005)[35]29-44也認(rèn)為,RAN和語(yǔ)音意識(shí)是相對(duì)獨(dú)立的。二者對(duì)閱讀的影響力大小取決于閱讀任務(wù)的本質(zhì)。語(yǔ)音意識(shí)的測(cè)量對(duì)不計(jì)時(shí)的閱讀能力有很好的預(yù)測(cè),而RAN測(cè)試則對(duì)有時(shí)間限制的閱讀有好的預(yù)測(cè)作用。另外,一些研究也發(fā)現(xiàn),語(yǔ)音技能與快速命名,實(shí)則是預(yù)測(cè)閱讀的不同部分。Bjarte和Furnes等人(2011)[36]85-95認(rèn)為語(yǔ)音意識(shí),通常是預(yù)測(cè)閱讀的準(zhǔn)確性,而快速命名,通常是關(guān)注閱讀的流暢性。應(yīng)該看到,持后面一種觀點(diǎn)的對(duì)于RAN障礙與語(yǔ)音加工障礙在閱讀障礙中的相對(duì)作用亦未厘清,所以雙重障礙假設(shè)也面臨著爭(zhēng)議,而且該假設(shè)很少經(jīng)過(guò)閱讀年齡控制組的檢驗(yàn)。
正字法(Orthographic)是使文字的拼讀和書(shū)寫(xiě)合于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的方法。Wolf(1997)[37]67-92他們認(rèn)為造成閱讀能力低下的認(rèn)知過(guò)程在于正字法表征的缺陷和形音之間聯(lián)系形成的障礙,這二者是閱讀的關(guān)鍵。其在分析快速命名任務(wù)時(shí)特別提到了正字法的自動(dòng)提取,換句話說(shuō),有快速命名缺陷的閱讀障礙兒童可能沒(méi)有形成一個(gè)穩(wěn)定的、牢固的正字法表征,因而無(wú)法快速提取。
正字法深度(Orthographical Depth)是指詞的形態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu)與音位結(jié)構(gòu)之間的一致程度或透明程度,亦即由形知音的程度。Forst,Katz和Bentin(1987)[38]104-114提出,各種書(shū)面語(yǔ)言的正字法深度可以視為一個(gè)由淺至深的連續(xù)體,每一種語(yǔ)言的正字法深度都可以在這個(gè)連續(xù)體中找到自己的位置。透明文字的字形單元與語(yǔ)音單元均一一對(duì)應(yīng),一個(gè)字形單元只代表一個(gè)語(yǔ)音單元,如意大利語(yǔ)、西班牙語(yǔ)。不透明文字的形音對(duì)應(yīng)規(guī)則與其相反,相似的拼寫(xiě)表示相同的詞素卻表示不同的音位,詞形和詞音的關(guān)系較少透明,如英語(yǔ)、漢語(yǔ)。Kubozono(1996)[39]77-94的跨語(yǔ)言研究表明,不同人群的正字法知識(shí)對(duì)于閱讀能力起著重要的作用。不同語(yǔ)言的研究(Brizzolara et al.2006[40]141-149;Holopainen et al.2001[41]401-413;M?Ller and Brady 2001[42]757-799;Tressoldi et al.2001[43]414-417;Wimmer 1993[44]1-34;Wimmer and Mayringer 2001[45])都認(rèn)為,在正字法透明的語(yǔ)言中,閱讀速度更快(Castles and Coltheart 2004)[46]77-111。
一個(gè)針對(duì)德語(yǔ)患有閱讀障礙的兒童進(jìn)行的研究表明:在透明正字法的語(yǔ)言中,個(gè)體在語(yǔ)音意識(shí)上的差異對(duì)閱讀能力的影響是微不足道的,而在RAN方面的差異則至關(guān)重要(Wimmer 1993)[47]1-134。這一結(jié)果也得到了其他研究的證實(shí),因此盡管如前文中所提到的,在大多數(shù)語(yǔ)言中,語(yǔ)音意識(shí)對(duì)閱讀的預(yù)測(cè)作用更突出。但是因?yàn)槭艿秸址ǖ挠绊?,在擁有透明正字法的語(yǔ)言中,RAN還是非常重要的。Manis et al.(1999)[48]129-157強(qiáng)調(diào)這是正字法加工的作用,他認(rèn)為RAN的核心本質(zhì)是符號(hào)及其命名之間的關(guān)聯(lián)是任意的。也就是說(shuō),如果閱讀任務(wù)包含更多任意的形-音連接任務(wù)(閱讀真詞和假詞),那么RAN和閱讀能力之間的關(guān)系將更加顯著。
Snowling and Griffiths(2003)[49]通過(guò)實(shí)驗(yàn)進(jìn)一步發(fā)現(xiàn),有閱讀障礙癥的兒童,尤其是英語(yǔ)兒童,在詞長(zhǎng)較長(zhǎng)的真詞和假詞的準(zhǔn)確發(fā)音上都有問(wèn)題。而在透明語(yǔ)言中,有閱讀障礙的兒童在準(zhǔn)確性上問(wèn)題不突出,但流暢度有所下降,相對(duì)的發(fā)音時(shí)長(zhǎng)也是有所增加,比典型發(fā)展兒童讀得慢得多。Georgiou et al.(2009)[50]508-534也認(rèn)為,在透明正字法的語(yǔ)言中,RAN與反應(yīng)時(shí)間之間的聯(lián)系更密切,而不是和口語(yǔ)的流暢度。另外一些研究(Bowers et al.1999[51]31-53;Manis et al.1999[52]401-429.;Sunseth and Bowers 2002[53]115-128)也表明,有RAN缺陷的兒童在正字法加工中的反應(yīng)表現(xiàn)明顯弱于典型發(fā)展兒童。但是,另一些研究(Bowey and Miller 2007[54]185-199;Cunningham et al.2002[55]508-534)并不支持這個(gè)觀點(diǎn)。因此,必須要厘清透明度不同的正字法之間的區(qū)別,以及數(shù)據(jù)類型(流暢度和反應(yīng)時(shí)間)之間的差距,才能理解RAN和閱讀之間的關(guān)系。
RAN與閱讀之間的關(guān)系是隨著時(shí)間而改變的(Georgiou et al.2009)[56]508-534。Torgesen,et al.(1997)[57]161-185發(fā)現(xiàn),盡管語(yǔ)音意識(shí)和快速命名都對(duì)閱讀能力有重要的預(yù)測(cè)作用,但是在兒童閱讀的早期階段,RAN和閱讀能力之間的關(guān)系并不明顯。Kirby et al.(2003)[58]453-464在一個(gè)縱向研究中選取了從幼兒園到小學(xué)五年級(jí)的被試,發(fā)現(xiàn)RAN和閱讀之間的聯(lián)系有一個(gè)增長(zhǎng)。相同的結(jié)論也被其他研究證實(shí)(Landerl and Wimmer 2008[59]150-161;Van den Bos et al.2002[60]25-49)。Bowey etal.(2005)[61]400-422認(rèn)為,在閱讀發(fā)展的初級(jí)階段,字母知識(shí)和語(yǔ)音加工能力都對(duì)RAN和閱讀之間的關(guān)系有影響,而后期階段,主要是語(yǔ)音加工能力發(fā)揮作用。但同時(shí)也有研究者稱,RAN對(duì)一年級(jí)和二年級(jí)的兒童的閱讀有著很強(qiáng)的預(yù)測(cè)作用,這種聯(lián)系在三年級(jí)到四年級(jí)期間逐步減弱(Georgiou et al.2008b[62]325-360;Roman et al.2009[63]96-113;Torgesen et al.1997[64]161-185)。只不過(guò)這樣的例外沒(méi)有經(jīng)過(guò)更多實(shí)驗(yàn)的驗(yàn)證,還需要大量的實(shí)證工作(Georgiou et al.2009)[65]508-534。
閱讀障礙者的缺陷類型牽涉到閱讀的兩個(gè)主要成分:字詞閱讀(也稱解碼的技能)和閱讀理解(Lundberg 2002)[66]1-13。字詞閱讀是字形激活語(yǔ)音的過(guò)程,而閱讀理解涉及字詞識(shí)別、語(yǔ)音譯碼和理解能力,是通過(guò)語(yǔ)音激活和聯(lián)結(jié)獲取意義的過(guò)程。字詞閱讀、閱讀理解和RAN之間的關(guān)系尚存爭(zhēng)議。有觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為,熟練閱讀需要準(zhǔn)確且自動(dòng)提取形音,這樣閱讀者的注意力才能集中到意義和內(nèi)容上,且字詞閱讀和閱讀理解是分開(kāi)的、序列的加工過(guò)程(Dudley and Mather 2005)[67]22-27;因此RAN對(duì)字詞閱讀和閱讀理解都有貢獻(xiàn)(Wolf and Bowers 1999)[68]22-27。但另一些研究認(rèn)為RAN和閱讀理解沒(méi)有關(guān)系,它僅對(duì)單詞識(shí)別有預(yù)測(cè)作用,如Meyer(1998)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)RAN缺陷僅預(yù)測(cè)單詞識(shí)別[69]415-438。
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