田孟鑫 劉衛(wèi)仁 樊嘉 史穎弘
(復(fù)旦大學(xué)肝癌研究所,上海 200032)
腫瘤的浸潤和轉(zhuǎn)移是惡性腫瘤最主要的生物學(xué)特征之一,是影響腫瘤患者預(yù)后的關(guān)鍵因素。研究已證實(shí),腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移與缺氧密切相關(guān),缺氧情況下的腫瘤細(xì)胞具有高侵襲性、轉(zhuǎn)移性及耐藥性[1]。賴氨酰氧化酶(lysyl oxidase,LOX)是一種銅依賴性單胺氧化酶,參與細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)中膠原與彈性蛋白聚合起始階段,并且是穩(wěn)定細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)(extracellular matrix,ECM)的關(guān)鍵酶,催化彈性蛋白和膠原蛋白發(fā)生交聯(lián),從而增加細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)的穩(wěn)定性。最新研究[2-5]發(fā)現(xiàn),在食管、結(jié)直腸、膀胱及頭頸等部位發(fā)生的惡性腫瘤組織中,缺氧誘導(dǎo)的LOX家族蛋白表達(dá)增加,并具有促進(jìn)腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移的作用。相反,在前列腺、肺臟、乳腺以及胃等部位發(fā)生的惡性腫瘤中,LOX家族蛋白則具有抑制腫瘤生長的作用[6-9]?,F(xiàn)針對LOX家族在惡性腫瘤中的矛盾作用作一綜述。
1.1 LOX家族的基因背景、結(jié)構(gòu)和生物學(xué)功能LOX家族的基因位于5號染色體長臂(5q23.3-31.2),由7 個(gè)外顯子組成,編碼 417 個(gè)氨基酸[10]。LOX由成纖維細(xì)胞合成糖基化的前酶原(相對分子量50000),酶原分泌到細(xì)胞外后,即由溶膠原C-蛋白水解酶水解為LOX前肽(LOX propeptide,LOX-PP,相對分子量18000)和具有催化活性的成熟LOX(相對分子量32000),后者具有Cu2+和賴氨酰酪氨酰苯醌(lysine tyrosylquinone,LTQ)兩個(gè)活性基團(tuán)。與Cu2+結(jié)合后的LOX才具有活性,能夠催化ECM中膠原蛋白和彈性蛋白形成共價(jià)交聯(lián),以保持ECM結(jié)構(gòu)的完整性。LOX同時(shí)還具有其他重要的生物學(xué)功能,包括參與腫瘤的發(fā)生與發(fā)展、細(xì)胞的分化、運(yùn)動(dòng)以及黏附等。
1.2 LOX家族成員 LOX家族包括LOX和LOX樣蛋白(LOX-like protein,LOXL),后者包括4個(gè)成員:LOXL1、LOXL2、LOXL3和 LOXL4[11]。4種LOXL的羧基端為保守序列,均含有205個(gè)氨基酸構(gòu)成的LOX催化結(jié)構(gòu)域,氨基端差異較大,決定了4種LOXL的不同生物學(xué)功能。Molnar等[12]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),LOXL分別存在于不同細(xì)胞的胞質(zhì)和胞核內(nèi),共同發(fā)揮調(diào)控細(xì)胞生長、腫瘤抑制、調(diào)控細(xì)胞衰老及趨化等作用。LOXL1、LOXL2、LOXL3和LOXL4還能促進(jìn)多種腫瘤的侵襲和轉(zhuǎn)移[13-18],而且LOX、LOX-PP、LOXL1和LOXL4等與腫瘤增殖的抑制有關(guān)[9,19]。
近年來,越來越多的研究證實(shí),LOX家族在腫瘤進(jìn)展中扮演雙重角色:腫瘤抑制作用和轉(zhuǎn)移促進(jìn)作用。LOX家族的雙重作用可能與LOX家族的細(xì)胞定位有關(guān),通常情況下,腫瘤抑制作用由胞內(nèi)LOX家族蛋白參與,而轉(zhuǎn)移促進(jìn)作用則由胞外LOX家族蛋白參與。同時(shí),LOX家族的致瘤性和轉(zhuǎn)移性主要是通過ECM的重建而實(shí)現(xiàn)的。以下將分別介紹LOX家族的雙重作用。
2.1 腫瘤抑制作用及其機(jī)制 LOX最早被稱為Ras消除基因(ras recision gene,Rrg),大鼠細(xì)胞LOX異常表達(dá)可抑制Hras誘導(dǎo)的腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)化,表明LOX 具有腫瘤抑制功能[20-21]。近年來,研究[22-25]發(fā)現(xiàn),由LOX前酶原裂解而來的相對分子量為18000的LOX前肽,既能夠抑制NRKFs(normal rat kidney fibroblasts)的腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)化,也能抑制相關(guān)的信號通路激活 NF-κB(Naclear Factor-κB),從而抑制哺乳動(dòng)物上皮細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)化和移植瘤形成,此外可下調(diào)BCL2(B-cell CLL/lymphoma 2)原 癌 基 因 的 轉(zhuǎn)錄[25]。LOX還可與受體型蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶-kappa(receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase kappa,RPTP-kappa)相互作用,抑制β-連環(huán)蛋白的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性而發(fā)揮腫瘤抑制作用[24]。Palamakumbura等[6]的 研 究 顯 示,LOX-PP 能 夠 結(jié) 合 FGF(fibroblast grocoth factor)信號受體,抑制前列腺癌細(xì)胞的增殖。另外,LOX-PP還能夠增強(qiáng)阿霉素對胰腺癌和乳腺癌細(xì)胞的毒性作用,誘導(dǎo)癌細(xì)胞凋亡[26]。LOX-PP 還 能 抑 制 Blimp1(B lymphocyte-induced maturoation protein 1)介導(dǎo)的 Ras/Raf/AP-1信號通路以下調(diào)轉(zhuǎn)移表型,促進(jìn)小鼠移植瘤的凋亡[7-8]。
2.2 腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移促進(jìn)作用及其機(jī)制 LOX可表達(dá)于頭頸部鱗狀細(xì)胞癌、乳腺癌、結(jié)直腸癌和前列腺癌,在腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移過程中發(fā)揮重要作用[27-30]。人腎透明細(xì)胞癌中LOX表達(dá)增加,且其與患者總體生存率和無復(fù)發(fā)生存率降低有關(guān)[31-32]。LOX也可激活FAK/SRC信號通路,增加ECM硬度,促進(jìn)結(jié)直腸癌的進(jìn)展[29]。LOXL2高表達(dá)與腫瘤分期、預(yù)后不良和存活率下降有關(guān)[13,33-34]。在胃癌中的研究[35]發(fā)現(xiàn),分泌性LOXL2作用于SRC-FAK通路,增強(qiáng)了腫瘤侵襲和轉(zhuǎn)移能力,LOXL2特異性抗體可抑制腫瘤侵襲和轉(zhuǎn)移能力。LOXL4作為頭頸部原發(fā)、轉(zhuǎn)移腫瘤分子標(biāo)志物,也能促進(jìn)腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移[36]。與頭頸部正常組織相比,幾乎所有的口腔黏膜樣本中均有LOXL4表達(dá)增高,并伴有重度異型性增生和淋巴結(jié)轉(zhuǎn)移[37]。不僅如此,LOXL4、LOX、LOXL2等還可以促進(jìn)轉(zhuǎn)移微環(huán)境的形成[38]。
2.2.1 缺氧 瘤內(nèi)缺氧與腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移和不良預(yù)后密切相關(guān)[39]。缺氧既可以限制腫瘤細(xì)胞的分裂,還可以篩選出惡性程度更高的表型。缺氧促進(jìn)腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移主要通過兩條途徑:(1)誘導(dǎo) HIF-1α(Hypoxia induced factor-1α)表達(dá)的增加,HIF-1α可調(diào)節(jié)表皮生長因子、LOX、Snail等基因的表達(dá),使E-cadherin表達(dá)下 調(diào)[40-44],而 E-cadherin 是 上 皮 細(xì) 胞 間 質(zhì) 轉(zhuǎn) 化(epithelial to mesenchymal transition,EMT)的關(guān)鍵步驟;(2)促進(jìn)血管生成,即新生毛細(xì)血管的形成,這是腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移的另一個(gè)關(guān)鍵步驟。在結(jié)直腸癌的研究中[45]發(fā)現(xiàn),缺氧環(huán)境下 HIF-1α可引起LOX的表達(dá)增加,隨后血小板源性生長因子受體β(plateletderived growth factor receptor-β,PDGFR-β)激 活A(yù)kt,導(dǎo)致 VEGF(Vascular endothelial growth factor)表達(dá)的增加,促進(jìn)腫瘤內(nèi)血管的生成,該作用可被LOX靶向消除或被PDGFR-β抑制劑阻斷。
2.2.2 ECM重建 LOX家族通過ECM重建和改變腫瘤微環(huán)境硬度進(jìn)而改變腫瘤行為。實(shí)體腫瘤組織中致密結(jié)締組織廣泛形成,以纖維母細(xì)胞增多和(或)ECM沉積、紊亂為特征。臨床發(fā)現(xiàn),組織纖維化和腫瘤關(guān)系密切。乳腺X線檢查劑量升高,不僅可增加乳腺癌發(fā)生的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),而且該類腫瘤多以I型膠原沉積為特征[46]。膠原纖維在ECM中含量最豐富,對組織抗張強(qiáng)度和硬度影響最大,其合成增多、沉積過度導(dǎo)致ECM紊亂,與腫瘤進(jìn)展密不可分[47]。一直以來,研究認(rèn)為,腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移的先決條件是周圍基質(zhì)的分解,而組織病理研究指出,瘤內(nèi)纖維化與患者不良預(yù)后有相關(guān)性,并強(qiáng)調(diào)ECM重建在腫瘤進(jìn)展、轉(zhuǎn)移過程中的關(guān)鍵作用。膠原纖維重組促進(jìn)腫瘤的侵襲,并且該行為顯著增加了膠原的密度[48]。在LOXL2合成增加的非侵襲性乳腺癌細(xì)胞中,侵襲和纖維化同時(shí)出現(xiàn),暗示兩者之間存在內(nèi)源性聯(lián)系[49]。硬化的腫瘤微環(huán)境中,腫瘤細(xì)胞借表面整合素受體接受外界機(jī)械刺激,更易增殖和侵襲周圍基質(zhì)[50]。
2.2.3 EMT EMT是腫瘤細(xì)胞擴(kuò)散和轉(zhuǎn)移的核心步驟[51-52]。在表達(dá) LOX的腫瘤組織中,LOX或LOXL均可結(jié)合并激活轉(zhuǎn)錄因子Snail,從而直接誘導(dǎo) EMT[53]。有研究[53]表明,MDCK(Madin Darby canine Kidney)細(xì)胞系中LOXL2的表達(dá)增加可促進(jìn)上皮細(xì)胞向成纖維細(xì)胞或梭形細(xì)胞表型的轉(zhuǎn)變,并伴隨著波狀蛋白的分布變化和E-cadherin的表達(dá)下調(diào)。
2.2.4 趨化作用 活化形式的LOX同時(shí)是一種趨化因子,它可以使多種細(xì)胞,如外周血單核細(xì)胞、血管平滑肌細(xì)胞等發(fā)生趨化運(yùn)動(dòng)[54]。β氨基丙腈(β-Aminopropionitrile,BAPN)作 為 LOX 的 抑 制劑,可以明顯抑制LOX對血管平滑肌細(xì)胞趨化反應(yīng)的強(qiáng)度和敏感性。LOX也能增強(qiáng)血小板源性生長 因 子 BB (plateletderived growth factor-BB,PDGF-BB)的趨化活性,其原因可能是分泌到細(xì)胞外的LOX可以氧化細(xì)胞膜蛋白,如PDGFR-β,從而增強(qiáng)了PDGF-BB誘導(dǎo)的趨化反應(yīng)。此外,Erler等[2]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),缺氧誘導(dǎo)乳腺癌細(xì)胞分泌的LOX在轉(zhuǎn)移前微環(huán)境(premetastatic niche)中積累,催化膠原纖維IV在基底膜處交聯(lián),同時(shí)募集CD11b+骨髓細(xì)胞,后者與膠原纖維IV相黏附,引起MMP-2合成增加,MMP-2(Matrix metallopeptidase 2)既可以促進(jìn)膠原裂解,也可以募集骨髓源性細(xì)胞(bone marrow-derived cells,BMDC)和轉(zhuǎn)移的腫瘤細(xì)胞,促進(jìn)轉(zhuǎn)移灶的形成。
雖然LOX家族具有雙重作用,但是針對LOX家族的靶向治療仍然具有重要的意義。眾多研究[27,33-55]表明,LOX 和 LOXL2抑制物能顯著減少腫瘤的播散。轉(zhuǎn)基因和移植瘤大鼠模型中,應(yīng)用BAPN、功能性封閉抗體或者LOX特異性干擾RNA,可降低肺轉(zhuǎn)移、肝轉(zhuǎn)移發(fā)生率[27]。Barry-Hamilton等[33]的研究指出,在大鼠體內(nèi)和體外BAPN也能抑制人重組LOXL2的表達(dá)。Payne等[56]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),低侵襲MCF-7細(xì)胞LOX表達(dá)上升可出現(xiàn)侵襲和黏附現(xiàn)象,添加BAPN后即消失。大鼠鱗癌模型中,LOXL2基因敲除可導(dǎo)致E-cadherin再表達(dá)、腫瘤細(xì)胞凋亡增加[53],而大鼠胃癌模型中,LOXL2抗體抑制LOXL2后對Snail無影響[35]。四 硫 鉬 酸 鹽 (tetrathiomolybdate,TM)是LOX家族靶向治療的一種藥物,臨床試驗(yàn)[57]中轉(zhuǎn)移性乳腺癌患者接受TM治療后病情可穩(wěn)定數(shù)月,甚至部分患者出現(xiàn)緩解。乳腺癌[58]和結(jié)直腸癌[59]大鼠模型研究發(fā)現(xiàn),HIF1-α靶向治療可抑制LOX家族在體外對缺氧的反應(yīng)。另外,BMP1可激活LOX和LOXL1以前體酶原的形式分泌,抑制BMP1或者敲除BMP1可減少體外試驗(yàn)中活化的LOX水平[60]??傊?,LOX家族在腫瘤進(jìn)展中作用復(fù)雜,需要進(jìn)行針對LOX家族的聯(lián)合治療或者針對誘導(dǎo)LOX家族合成的靶向治療。
目前,LOX家族的腫瘤抑制能力是否與轉(zhuǎn)移密切相關(guān),LOX家族啟動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)移的活性在惡性轉(zhuǎn)化中是否加強(qiáng),都未得到深入研究。不僅如此,缺乏對LOX家族化學(xué)晶體結(jié)構(gòu)的全面認(rèn)識也阻礙了經(jīng)典藥物的發(fā)展和檢查方法的改進(jìn),且當(dāng)前應(yīng)用的小分子抑制劑不具有選擇性。令人欣慰的是,盡管挑戰(zhàn)重重,但是LOX家族的靶向治療可能會為抗腫瘤治療帶來新的希望。
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