Ｆｏｌｋ?。粒颍簦海茫欤幔。疲椋纾酰颍椋睿澹螅ǎ校幔颍簟。桑?/h1>
2008-08-05 09:52:04ＢｙｓｔａｆｆｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｒＨＵＯＪＩＡＮＹＩＮＧ
CHINA TODAY 2008年7期
Ｂｙ?。螅簦幔妫妗。颍澹穑铮颍簦澹颉。龋眨稀。剩桑粒危伲桑危?/p>
THE Goddess Nüwa is said to have created human beings by molding men and women out of clay and breathing life into them, making her, in a sense, the first Chinese clay artist. It is a creation myth that can be found in historical manuscripts going back some 2,000 years, and it speaks of Nüwas loneliness in a world without people. To ease her solitude, she fashioned the human race out of common clay and became the Mother of Humankind.
The “Mother” of Clay Figurines
After the Earth was formed and the sky set in place, mountains and rivers appeared, and animals, birds, insects and fish came to populate the endless forest. But the Goddess Nüwa was lonely, and in her solitude molded some clay figurines that resembled herself. Because they had been created by the very hands of divinity, they were unlike any of the other creatures on the surface of the Earth. When Nüwa breathed life into them, they danced joyously before scattering to settle the four corners of the world, and Nüwa, who loved her creations dearly, became the Mother of Humankind.
Some scholars believe the Nüwa creation myth originated in a matriarchal society that existed in humanitys earliest history, and legends also recall how she subdued floods, fires and other natural disasters. The best known is the story of how she tempered colorful stones with which she patched upholes in the sky.
Almost all the Nüwa legends mention a man called Fuxi, identifying him either as her brother or her husband. Some even record that Fuxi worked with Nüwa, and that the two “kneaded and shaped clay into men and women.” For that reason, Fuxi is sometimes honored as the forefather of the Chinese nation.
Textual studies suggest that Fuxi was in reality a leader of the Central Plains Area in remote times. He established his capital in Huaiyang, in Henan Province, and governed his territory together with Nüwa. He was buried in Huaiyangs Taihao Mausoleum, which still stands in the city today.
The Taihao Mausoleum has always been a mecca for Chinese ancestor worshippers over the millennia. Historical records mention imperial rituals conducted there as early as the third century B.C. Ordinary people also gathered every spring to commemorate Fuxi and Nüwa as the ancestors of the Chinese nation. The tradition lives on to this day, and has evolved into a “temple fair” that incorporates commerce and entertainment, alongside the respect and tribute paid to ancestors.
“Clay Dog” of Huaiyang
The Huaiyang temple fair is one of the oldest in China, and a unique folk art that can be found at any local temple fair is something called “Clay Dog.” Most likely inspired by the myth of Nüwa, locals have practiced clay art from very ancient times, passing its secrets down through the clan. According to veteran practitioners, all of the shapes and styles used are identical to those fashioned by their ancestors, not least because the ancient craft requires all of its practitioners to strictly abide by its rules and methods. So what we see today is, in fact, a primitive art form incorporating peculiar shapes, stark colors, mysterious patterns and unintelligible symbols.
“Clay Dog” is a collective name for Huaiyang clay figurines. There are hundreds of varieties, and the dog is only one of them. Folk tales describe dogs as guardian deities protecting human beings, and, indeed, there were numerous ancient tribes that worshipped dog totems. The first character in the name Fuxi is actually composed of two radicals; the first means “man,” and the second, “dog.” Some people have speculated that Fuxis tribe worshipped dog totems, and that after Fuxi died, dogs became deities that guarded the Taihao Mausoleum. For that reason, Huaiyang clay dogs are also known locally as “mausoleum dogs.”
The many varieties of “Clay Dog” share something in common, namely a black background color on which different patterns of red, yellow, blue, white, green and pink are etched. All the figurines – monkeys with human faces, face-conjoined human beings, swallows with monkeys heads, and monkey-tiger figures – are decorated with vaginal patterns, reflecting the reproductive totem worship of a matriarchal society. Evidence of this worship can also be found in the main hall of the Taihao Mausoleum, where a built-in slabstone in a corner of the hall has a hole in it, called the “Offspring Cave.” Legend has it that anyone who touches it will have sons. The stone has been worn down by many generations of hands, and has been replaced countless times over the centuries. Huaiyang also has folk dances and miscellaneous shows that were designed as ritual prayers for sons.
“Clay Coo-coo” of Xunxian
Xunxian County, 300 kilometers from Huaiyang, is another famous producer of clay figurines in Henan Province. If the Huaiyang genre can be categorized as abstract, the Xunxian craft is more properly described as realistic, in the sense that it is based on the everyday lives of the local people.
The craft is said to have originated during a period of protracted warfare some 1,300 years ago, at the juncture of the late Sui and early Tang dynasties. Xunxian was a strategic battlefield, and rebel forces were stationed in one of its villages. It is said that some soldiers had formerly been clay artists, and they would shape clay horses and figurines in memory of their comrades and mounts killed on the battlefield. After the war, some of them stayed on and passed down their art to other villagers.
Xunxian figurines are small, their size ranging from a few centimeters to 20 centimeters. They have two holes that coo when blown, therefore the nickname “Clay Coo-coo.” There are more than 100 varieties in three categories – human, animals and birds.
Most human figurines are based on classic novels, stories and folk operas, and are presented vividly and realistically, while the clay horses are the best of the animal figurines. Their attitude and physique suggest heroic war horses, and they are usually not executed proportionally, with raised, defiant heads and muscular necks dwarfing the body and hind legs. Their colorsare always lively and bright, and when it comes to horse-and-rider figurines, the focus is switched from the horse to its rider, either in terms of their physical proportion or the patterns painted on them. In general, exaggeration is a basic feature of Xunxian figurines.
Apart from steeds, there are also many wild, mythological and domestic animals on display. The domestic animals are presented as they would appear in nature – roosters, for example, are always on their feet, while hens rest on the ground. Their bodies are always painted with grass and flower patterns, suggesting a pastoral simplicity andserenity.
Clay Versions of Old Beijing
Folk art bears a strong regional imprint, and Beijing craftsmen are also accomplished in clay art. But Beijings folk art is very different from Huaiyangs and Xunxians in terms of subject, artistic style and workmanship. In contrast to their provincial counterparts, Beijings clay figurines reflect urban lifestyles.
Beijing was the national capital for several feudal dynasties and the birthplace of Peking Opera. Local opera fans not only loved the theater, but also its related arts and crafts. According to old clay craftsmen, Peking Opera figurines were seen on vendors stalls at temple fairs in the late 19th century. At that time, a Manchu man whose surname was Gui lived in the capital. He loved poetry, painting and Peking Opera, and was particularly fascinated by actors painted faces.
As the Qing Dynasty was established by the Manchus, their members lived a privileged life and held official posts both high and low. Very often, the posts were only honorary, and their holders earned a salary without having to do anything. Gui was one of them. So he occupied himself with sculpting and painting Peking Opera masks. As his skills improved, his works became popular with his friends and relatives. Many people came to ask for his figurines, and he always happily consented.
After the 1911 Revolution toppled the Qing government, the privileged Manchus lost their source of income. It was then that Gui began selling his clay figurines, and his business did well. As supply did not meet demand, many others began learning this craft, and more clay craftsmen appeared, as well as a greater range of figurines.
Apart from Peking Opera masks and figurines, the rabbit is also a major subject of Beijing clay art. One folk tale recounts how a divine rabbit saved Beijings citizens from a plague, and how the locals have cherished clay rabbits as auspicious icons ever since. Beijings clay figurines often illustrate the folkways and lifestyles of old Beijing. One set that describes the spring festival temple fair includes scenes such as walking on stilts, parade floats and acrobatics.
“The mouse marries off his daughter” is an old Chinese tale, and is also a popular subject for clay craftsmen. The tale has different versions in different places; some say the bridegroom was a cat, and others, a mouse.
The cat version says that a mouse couple wanted to find a strong son-in-law. They first thought of the Sun, since all the devils and ghosts were afraid of it. The Sun told them the Cloud could eclipse it. They then came to the Cloud, who said the Wind could disperse it. So they turned to the Wind, who said the Wall could stop it. The Wall, they were told, was vulnerable to mice. The mouse couple was pleased to hear this, and thought that only cats were stronger than mice; so they finally decided to marry their daughter to a cat. The cat agreed. The mouse family sent over the bride with a magnificent ceremony, but the cat ate his bride on their wedding night.
In the Beijing version, the king of mice married his daughter to a mouse during the Spring Festival. According to folklore, Beijing citizens are advised to go to bed early and turn off the light on that day, so as not to disturb the wedding of the mice. They were also supposed to scatter some grain and candy in the corners of their houses as signs of congratulations. Otherwise, the mouse king would make trouble for them the whole year.
Though the protagonists of this clay suite are mice, they reflect the wedding customs of old Beijing. The set is usually composed of a procession of mice attendants, including a guard of honor in front, the bridal sedan chair carried by eight mice in the center, followed by the brides relatives and friends, with the final section depicting the wedding ceremony in the wedding chamber.
According to old craftsmen, the clay figurines of old Beijing were categorized into three grades according to their quality. Those of the third grade were inferior in workmanship and were sold by traveling vendors in hutongs. Those of the second grade were mediocre in quality and were sold at temple fairs and streetside stores. Exquisite ones made by master artists were sold as works of art to officials, aristocrats and literati.
It was said that Empress Dowager Cixi loved contemporary clay figurine artist Zhangs works very much. Some of his works are still kept in the Hall of Happiness and Longevity – Cixis residence in the Summer Palace. They were presented as gifts to Cixi on her 70th birthday.
Ｂｙ?。螅簦幔妫妗。颍澹穑铮颍簦澹颉。龋眨稀。剩桑粒危伲桑危?/p>
THE Goddess Nüwa is said to have created human beings by molding men and women out of clay and breathing life into them, making her, in a sense, the first Chinese clay artist. It is a creation myth that can be found in historical manuscripts going back some 2,000 years, and it speaks of Nüwas loneliness in a world without people. To ease her solitude, she fashioned the human race out of common clay and became the Mother of Humankind.
The “Mother” of Clay Figurines
After the Earth was formed and the sky set in place, mountains and rivers appeared, and animals, birds, insects and fish came to populate the endless forest. But the Goddess Nüwa was lonely, and in her solitude molded some clay figurines that resembled herself. Because they had been created by the very hands of divinity, they were unlike any of the other creatures on the surface of the Earth. When Nüwa breathed life into them, they danced joyously before scattering to settle the four corners of the world, and Nüwa, who loved her creations dearly, became the Mother of Humankind.
Some scholars believe the Nüwa creation myth originated in a matriarchal society that existed in humanitys earliest history, and legends also recall how she subdued floods, fires and other natural disasters. The best known is the story of how she tempered colorful stones with which she patched upholes in the sky.
Almost all the Nüwa legends mention a man called Fuxi, identifying him either as her brother or her husband. Some even record that Fuxi worked with Nüwa, and that the two “kneaded and shaped clay into men and women.” For that reason, Fuxi is sometimes honored as the forefather of the Chinese nation.
Textual studies suggest that Fuxi was in reality a leader of the Central Plains Area in remote times. He established his capital in Huaiyang, in Henan Province, and governed his territory together with Nüwa. He was buried in Huaiyangs Taihao Mausoleum, which still stands in the city today.
The Taihao Mausoleum has always been a mecca for Chinese ancestor worshippers over the millennia. Historical records mention imperial rituals conducted there as early as the third century B.C. Ordinary people also gathered every spring to commemorate Fuxi and Nüwa as the ancestors of the Chinese nation. The tradition lives on to this day, and has evolved into a “temple fair” that incorporates commerce and entertainment, alongside the respect and tribute paid to ancestors.
“Clay Dog” of Huaiyang
The Huaiyang temple fair is one of the oldest in China, and a unique folk art that can be found at any local temple fair is something called “Clay Dog.” Most likely inspired by the myth of Nüwa, locals have practiced clay art from very ancient times, passing its secrets down through the clan. According to veteran practitioners, all of the shapes and styles used are identical to those fashioned by their ancestors, not least because the ancient craft requires all of its practitioners to strictly abide by its rules and methods. So what we see today is, in fact, a primitive art form incorporating peculiar shapes, stark colors, mysterious patterns and unintelligible symbols.
“Clay Dog” is a collective name for Huaiyang clay figurines. There are hundreds of varieties, and the dog is only one of them. Folk tales describe dogs as guardian deities protecting human beings, and, indeed, there were numerous ancient tribes that worshipped dog totems. The first character in the name Fuxi is actually composed of two radicals; the first means “man,” and the second, “dog.” Some people have speculated that Fuxis tribe worshipped dog totems, and that after Fuxi died, dogs became deities that guarded the Taihao Mausoleum. For that reason, Huaiyang clay dogs are also known locally as “mausoleum dogs.”
The many varieties of “Clay Dog” share something in common, namely a black background color on which different patterns of red, yellow, blue, white, green and pink are etched. All the figurines – monkeys with human faces, face-conjoined human beings, swallows with monkeys heads, and monkey-tiger figures – are decorated with vaginal patterns, reflecting the reproductive totem worship of a matriarchal society. Evidence of this worship can also be found in the main hall of the Taihao Mausoleum, where a built-in slabstone in a corner of the hall has a hole in it, called the “Offspring Cave.” Legend has it that anyone who touches it will have sons. The stone has been worn down by many generations of hands, and has been replaced countless times over the centuries. Huaiyang also has folk dances and miscellaneous shows that were designed as ritual prayers for sons.
“Clay Coo-coo” of Xunxian
Xunxian County, 300 kilometers from Huaiyang, is another famous producer of clay figurines in Henan Province. If the Huaiyang genre can be categorized as abstract, the Xunxian craft is more properly described as realistic, in the sense that it is based on the everyday lives of the local people.
The craft is said to have originated during a period of protracted warfare some 1,300 years ago, at the juncture of the late Sui and early Tang dynasties. Xunxian was a strategic battlefield, and rebel forces were stationed in one of its villages. It is said that some soldiers had formerly been clay artists, and they would shape clay horses and figurines in memory of their comrades and mounts killed on the battlefield. After the war, some of them stayed on and passed down their art to other villagers.
Xunxian figurines are small, their size ranging from a few centimeters to 20 centimeters. They have two holes that coo when blown, therefore the nickname “Clay Coo-coo.” There are more than 100 varieties in three categories – human, animals and birds.
Most human figurines are based on classic novels, stories and folk operas, and are presented vividly and realistically, while the clay horses are the best of the animal figurines. Their attitude and physique suggest heroic war horses, and they are usually not executed proportionally, with raised, defiant heads and muscular necks dwarfing the body and hind legs. Their colorsare always lively and bright, and when it comes to horse-and-rider figurines, the focus is switched from the horse to its rider, either in terms of their physical proportion or the patterns painted on them. In general, exaggeration is a basic feature of Xunxian figurines.
Apart from steeds, there are also many wild, mythological and domestic animals on display. The domestic animals are presented as they would appear in nature – roosters, for example, are always on their feet, while hens rest on the ground. Their bodies are always painted with grass and flower patterns, suggesting a pastoral simplicity andserenity.
Clay Versions of Old Beijing
Folk art bears a strong regional imprint, and Beijing craftsmen are also accomplished in clay art. But Beijings folk art is very different from Huaiyangs and Xunxians in terms of subject, artistic style and workmanship. In contrast to their provincial counterparts, Beijings clay figurines reflect urban lifestyles.
Beijing was the national capital for several feudal dynasties and the birthplace of Peking Opera. Local opera fans not only loved the theater, but also its related arts and crafts. According to old clay craftsmen, Peking Opera figurines were seen on vendors stalls at temple fairs in the late 19th century. At that time, a Manchu man whose surname was Gui lived in the capital. He loved poetry, painting and Peking Opera, and was particularly fascinated by actors painted faces.
As the Qing Dynasty was established by the Manchus, their members lived a privileged life and held official posts both high and low. Very often, the posts were only honorary, and their holders earned a salary without having to do anything. Gui was one of them. So he occupied himself with sculpting and painting Peking Opera masks. As his skills improved, his works became popular with his friends and relatives. Many people came to ask for his figurines, and he always happily consented.
After the 1911 Revolution toppled the Qing government, the privileged Manchus lost their source of income. It was then that Gui began selling his clay figurines, and his business did well. As supply did not meet demand, many others began learning this craft, and more clay craftsmen appeared, as well as a greater range of figurines.
Apart from Peking Opera masks and figurines, the rabbit is also a major subject of Beijing clay art. One folk tale recounts how a divine rabbit saved Beijings citizens from a plague, and how the locals have cherished clay rabbits as auspicious icons ever since. Beijings clay figurines often illustrate the folkways and lifestyles of old Beijing. One set that describes the spring festival temple fair includes scenes such as walking on stilts, parade floats and acrobatics.
“The mouse marries off his daughter” is an old Chinese tale, and is also a popular subject for clay craftsmen. The tale has different versions in different places; some say the bridegroom was a cat, and others, a mouse.
The cat version says that a mouse couple wanted to find a strong son-in-law. They first thought of the Sun, since all the devils and ghosts were afraid of it. The Sun told them the Cloud could eclipse it. They then came to the Cloud, who said the Wind could disperse it. So they turned to the Wind, who said the Wall could stop it. The Wall, they were told, was vulnerable to mice. The mouse couple was pleased to hear this, and thought that only cats were stronger than mice; so they finally decided to marry their daughter to a cat. The cat agreed. The mouse family sent over the bride with a magnificent ceremony, but the cat ate his bride on their wedding night.
In the Beijing version, the king of mice married his daughter to a mouse during the Spring Festival. According to folklore, Beijing citizens are advised to go to bed early and turn off the light on that day, so as not to disturb the wedding of the mice. They were also supposed to scatter some grain and candy in the corners of their houses as signs of congratulations. Otherwise, the mouse king would make trouble for them the whole year.
Though the protagonists of this clay suite are mice, they reflect the wedding customs of old Beijing. The set is usually composed of a procession of mice attendants, including a guard of honor in front, the bridal sedan chair carried by eight mice in the center, followed by the brides relatives and friends, with the final section depicting the wedding ceremony in the wedding chamber.
According to old craftsmen, the clay figurines of old Beijing were categorized into three grades according to their quality. Those of the third grade were inferior in workmanship and were sold by traveling vendors in hutongs. Those of the second grade were mediocre in quality and were sold at temple fairs and streetside stores. Exquisite ones made by master artists were sold as works of art to officials, aristocrats and literati.
It was said that Empress Dowager Cixi loved contemporary clay figurine artist Zhangs works very much. Some of his works are still kept in the Hall of Happiness and Longevity – Cixis residence in the Summer Palace. They were presented as gifts to Cixi on her 70th birthday.
