• <tr id="yyy80"></tr>
  • <sup id="yyy80"></sup>
  • <tfoot id="yyy80"><noscript id="yyy80"></noscript></tfoot>
  • 99热精品在线国产_美女午夜性视频免费_国产精品国产高清国产av_av欧美777_自拍偷自拍亚洲精品老妇_亚洲熟女精品中文字幕_www日本黄色视频网_国产精品野战在线观看 ?

    Last Nomads in China : Notes of the Everyday Life of Kazak Nomads in Xinjiang

    2004-08-17 03:06:02
    中國(guó)民族(英文版) 2004年1期
    關(guān)鍵詞:王建民

    文:王建民

    An American historian refers to the Kazak herdsmen who lead a nomadic life in the mountains, valleys and gobi in Tianshan and Altay as “the last nomads” in China. During recent years, I traveled many times to the Kazak region in northern Xinjiang to carry out field research. Each time I acquired a better understanding of the nomadic life of the Kazak people there.

    Kazak people in China are mainly distributed in Ili Kazak Autonomous Prefecture, Tacheng Prefecture, Altay Prefecture, Mori Kazak Autonomous County, and Barkol Kazak Autonomous County in northern Xinjiang, and in Aksay Kazak Autonomous County in Gansu Province. They are also found along the Tianshan Mountains in northern Xinjiang. These are herdsmen, farmers, and officials, workers, and commercial service providers in cities.

    It can be said that Kazak people are an important part of nomads in the Eurasian Steppes. They have been living as nomads since ancient times. After the Kazakh Kingdom was founded in the middle of the 15th century, these nomads were found throughout the Tianshan Mountains, the Altay Mountains and the Central Asian Steppe close to the Caspian Sea. Later on, the Kazakh Kingdom gradually declined as a result of the aggression of the Junggar Kingdom and conflicts with other ethnic groups in the Central Asian Steppe. Tsarist Russia expanded beyond the Ural Mountains and the Volga River, thus accelerating the colonization of Central Asia and causing the eventual fall of the Kazakh Kingdom. As a result, most of the Kazak nomadic areas including the territories east and south of Balkhash Lake that had been under the jurisdiction of Chinas Qing government were reduced to the colony of Tsarist Russia. In order to flee the rule of Tsarist Russia, some Kazak people moved to Chinese territory. Some other Kazak people fled from Russia to Xinjiang for various reasons. After the Sino-Russian border was delineated in modern times, Kazak people living in China became an ethnic minority of the country.

    The Kazak population has increased. As the feeding capacity per unit area of their grasslands is limited, there is a lack of pastures. Consequently, in response to the governments call, Kazak people today are gradually building settlements. As a matter of fact, they already began to do so over a century ago. In the last years of the Qing Dynasty, Kazak people in Xinjiang began to grow crops in river valleys, and they even rented the land of the Man people. During the Republic of China and after the founding of the Peoples Republic, some of the herdsmen began to grow crops and became farmers. In November 1957 the Rural Work Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC), the Commission for Ethnic Affairs and the Ministry of Agriculture jointly held a forum and adopted the principle for developing animal husbandry in pastoral areas. According to the principle, “on the basis of vigorously and steadily carrying out socialist transformation, great efforts will be made to develop animal husbandry, gradually effect a change from the nomadic life to a settled one, simultaneously develop agriculture and animal husbandry and concurrently engage in sideline production such as processing of animal products, so as to develop diverse sectors of the economy centered on animal husbandry.” Consequently, in the subsequent period of peoples communes, most of the peoples communes that had engaged mainly in animal husbandry successively established some agricultural production teams in river valleys and flat hillsides facing south. Communes transformed their members from the animal husbandry status to the agricultural status and transferred households from animal husbandry teams to agricultural teams. So some Kazak herdsmen became farmers who engaged mainly in farming, though they also engaged in animal husbandry. Some other herdsmen had scattered settlements near spring and fall pastures. Today, you can hardly find any townships and towns that engage only in animal husbandry in Kazak pastoral areas. There are even agricultural teams in state-owned or county-controlled pastoral areas.

    In the 1980s, the pastoral areas implemented the contract responsibility system with remuneration linked to output whereby livestock were sold to individuals. In 1986, the CPC Committee and government of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region held a conference on the work in northern Xinjiang pastoral areas and called for an end to the nomadic production style all the year round and for a settle life in the animal husbandry industry in Xinjiang. In the early 1990s, Kazak herdsmen quickened their pace of establishing settlements, and more and more of them gradually began a settled life. Some international organizations participated in expanding pilot projects to build settlements for herdsmen. The World Bank granted loans to build demonstration projects for settlements of herdsmen in the Altay pastoral areas in Xinjiang. Today, almost all Kazak animal husbandry villages have their settlements. However, in order to better preserve their ancestral heritage, many Kazak herdsmen still adopt a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle in accordance with their eco-system and pastoral resources.

    Nomads in different areas cover vastly different distances and make different numbers of nomadic trips a year. Take, for example, Jutobe Village in a small basin in the Tianshan Mountains which is separated from the county seat and the township by the Tekes River. Its villagers move about in quest of pasture in not-so-high hills in Tianshan mountain ranges in summer, get close to river valleys in winter, move between the two areas in spring and fall. The settlements here are very close to the township government building and are not very far from their pastures for the four seasons. They grow mainly highland barley, wheat and forage grass. The one-way nomadic distance of these nomads is about 30 kilometers, and they usually move four times a year. The nomads in the Jirand Pasture move about in quest of pasture in the Paruk Mountains in summer, in the flatlands before the mountains in spring and fall, and on the low slopes facing south in the Paruk Mountains. Their settlements were created out of clusters of reeds on alkaline shoals and are good for growing forage grass, wheat, safflowers and other cash crops. Their one-way nomadic distance was less than 100 kilometers. Kazak nomads whose settlements are in Karajira Village before the Altay Mountains and on the Ulungur River move about in quest of pasture in the gobi between the Altay Mountains and the Junggar Basin, and a household usually has a one-way nomadic distance about 500 kilometers. Their summer pasture is mostly in the Altay Mountains and the farthest one is close to the Sino-Mongolian border. Their spring and fall pastures are at the foot of the mountain, the small basin close to the mountain and the agricultural area in the valley of the Ertrix River. Their winter pasture is mostly in the Junggar Basin. As they need to use water from melted snow as their water supplies, nomads, except those use pastures close to spring water, usually decide where their winter pasture should be in accordance with the snowfalls in the year. As pastures for the four seasons are designated to every household, different families move to different destinations. A family moves 52 times a year at the most, and others move 30 to 40 times a year. About 70% of the nomads move 52 times a year, and they move 60 times a year at the most. Some families in animal husbandry villages even move 80 times a year. They move most frequently when they have to shift to the pasture for the next season. They often stay at a place for a night before moving on to another.

    Just as ancient Chinese literature said, nomads move about in accordance with local pastures and whether conditions year after year. As different areas have different natural conditions, nomads have different schedules for moving about in quest of pasture. They may adjust their schedules in light of changes in pastures and whether conditions. Nomads in Karajira Village move a lot, so their township government has animal husbandry production headquarters. The headquarters building is a tent and several government officials live there. In accordance with the schedule worked out by the township government, these officials make unified arrangements for nomads of different villages to move to their next pastures to prevent them from moving to their fall pastures too early and to protect nomadic paths and fall pastures. There is also a deputy township head especially in charge of animal husbandry, and he manages animal husbandry production including moving pastures, dipping, epidemic control for livestock, breeding, and lamb delivery.

    In Kazak society, traditional social organizations have long played the role in maintaining normal social operation, coordinating social relations, and handling social disputes. In traditional society, clans and tribes moved together in quest of pasture, and they played an important role in planning animal husbandry production and maintaining production order. At present, county and township governments decide plans for animal husbandry development, work out schedules for moving to the next pasture, and supervise and control pastoral areas. These animal husbandry production management functions used to be performed by clans and tribes. However, due to various changes that have taken place in Kazak society since modern times, clans and tribes no longer play the important role in production as they did before, though they are still major channels through which Kazak nomads seek social and cultural identity. The three villages mentioned above have different tribe compositions. Jutobe Village has only one tribe. The Jirand Pasture has different tribes. Villagers of Karajira Village belong to three branches of a tribe. As China adopted a modern system and gradually extended it to villages and border areas, it was inevitable for the state administrative system to replace the clan and tribal system. The functions of tribes and clans were transferred to the new administrative organizations.

    In everyday life, primary-level social organizations that retain certain traditions play a greater role. Aules are the lowest-level organizations in the clan and tribal system, and they coordinate the animal husbandry production of their nomads including making arrangements for moving to the next pasture, breeding, lamb delivery, epidemic control for livestock, shearing, forage grass storage, crop growing and sideline production. In addition, they meet outside challenges as a collective and coordinate its relations with the outside world. At first aules consisted of patrilineal families. There were usually composed of the family of the father and the families of their sons and even their grandsons. Later on, as the tribal system declined, aules also consisted of members of other tribes or clans. Aules played a less important role during the days of peoples communes than before. Since changes took place in the production and operation systems, aules have resumed their important role in production and in peoples everyday life. However, aules appear to be more like a big family. The aule people refer to today is often a patrilineal family including the parents, their sons and the families of these sons, so it often consists of people of three or four generations. When a son wants to live apart, he will usually share some livestock, and when a daughter gets married, she will also get some livestock for her new family. Different member families of the aule sell their own livestock, and then they combine the livestock they have and discuss how they should feed their livestock in winter. The father usually has a greater say in this regard. In some families, the father has the final say. In a fall pasture, the father should decide where to feed their cows, sheep and goats, who should go to the winter pasture and who should remain in the settlement. If they prepare their meals separately, different families should buy their own food. They sell livestock, and with the money they buy food and forage grass. They put what remains into the bank. Usually, all of them put their money into a single bank account in case of emergencies. Sometimes these families may have separate income, and they may put what remains, if any, into separate bank accounts. In aules in contemporary society, a big family has both division of labor and cooperation. However, “cooperation” appears to be particularly important for their production as nomads.

    In different seasons, nomadic Kazak people need to complete different animal husbandry activities. Animal husbandry production is usually organized by aules in the Kazak steppe. Now that they have settlements, one of the sons in the aule and his family may be assigned to stay in the settlement to grow crops and take care of the children attending schools newly built in the settlement. In the past, there were the so-called yurt primary schools that moved about together with nomads and there were also boarding schools for nomads children where township governments were located. However, nomads children had difficulty in attending these schools, classes and class hours could not be guaranteed, or students were not properly attended to. As a result, the teaching qualify of these two types of schools were affected to some extent. Now that there are schools in the settlements, nomads find it easier to educate their children.

    At present, in areas where nomads move frequently about in quest of pasture, more women, children and elderly people stay in their settlements in winter when one or two able-bodied men and a woman are usually assigned to take care of the livestock in the winter pasture. The womans responsibility is to prepare food, and the men are in charge of grazing livestock. In some areas there are small settlements. Nomads live in the permanent houses in the settlements and graze their livestock not far from these settlements. In summer, spring and fall pastures, in addition to preparing food, doing the washing and sewing, and taking care of children and elderly people, women attend to cattle, especially cows and calves. They get up very early every morning. In the summer pasture, the most important responsibility of women in the morning is to milk cows. Making kumis, cheese, butter and other dairy products is also their important task. People drive trucks to purchase milk in some pastoral areas, selling milk is a major source of income for herdsmen. In animal husbandry production, mens main responsibility is to graze sheep and horses, and they are the indispensable laborers at the time of lamb delivery, shearing, dipping, breeding, and moving on to the next pasture. Young children imitate their parents and gradually learn animal husbandry production skills under the influence of their elders.

    When Kazak people move about in quest of pasture, they usually live in yurts. They have permanent houses in some spring, fall or winter pastures. Except for their settlements, the permanent houses in other areas are mostly simple as they were built with adobes, stones, grass and mud, and planks. The houses have heating stoves and hot walls and simple furnishings. Where electricity is available, they use electric lights and even TV, refrigerators, radio-recorders, and VCDs. Some rich Kazak nomads have such portable generating equipment as solar energy direct-current storage battery generators, so they can use electric lights, radio-recorders and VCDs for their nomadic life. Sometimes nomads hold celebrations at home. They invite Kazak young men to form an electronic band that gives performances with electronic guitars and other musical instruments and sings to the music from recorders. In the evening nomads dance and sing together.

    Yurts have wooden frameworks, are covered with woolen felt and are composed of other accessories. In the past, most of the windows, railings and support bars were built by mobile artisans, and some able nomads made them too. But now they are mostly made by local ethnic products factories or self-employed Kazak artisans and available in county or township shops. In some places wooden sticks are available for making railings. These sticks are joined together with rubber-covered wire or cattle tendons to form foldable and endurable railings. The sizes of yurts are determined by their basic components including windows, railings and support bars. If a yurt is to be built for more people, more railings, bigger windows and more support bars will have to be used. Smaller yurts may have four railings and 65 support bars. In the Kazak pastoral areas, however, the biggest yurt I saw had eight railings and 150 support bars. The frameworks were covered by woolen felt. Nomads make woolen felt by themselves. They shear wool and then wash and dry it. And then they spread wool on splendid achnatherum curtains and beat it repeatedly with willow twigs or other rattans to make it soft. Some people work together to roll the curtains tightly and press them repeatedly to make woolen felt. Rich nomads have more sheep, so they can make felt with all white woolen. Not-so-rich nomads have to use wool of mixed colors. So in the steppe, a yurt suggests how many people a family have and how rich it is. Now that Kazak nomads in many areas have become prosperous, they add white canvas on their woolen felt to make their yurts look more attractive. Some nomads buy cotton carpets from shops and sew them with ceiling felt. The top of some ceiling felt is decorated with felt where black alternates with red. In addition to woolen felt, woolen ribbons and splendid achnatherum curtains that reinforce and beautify woolen felt are usually made by nomads themselves. Many nomads add color knitting wool and make Kazak patterns with nomadic characteristics. These patterns are made up mostly of abstract animals, flowers and grass. During recent years, patterns featuring on people and livestock have appeared. Women and their daughters who are about to get married are often good at decorating their yurts. During animal husbandry cultural festivals or other similar activities in Kazak pastoral areas, building a beautiful yurt will be the envy of others. While moving to other pastures, nomads also build some makeshift yurts by setting up the frameworks with wooden posts and covering them with wall felt. It is easy to make yurts that way.

    In the past, horses were the only means of transportation of Kazak nomads, and they remain important a means of transportation for them today. When moving to other pastures, nomads mainly use camels to carry their dismantled foldable yurts and furnishings. To articles are all easy to carry, and they are carefully bound so that they will not get lost on the way to other pastures. Elderly people, women and children either go in front of the vertical team of camels carrying articles or bring up the rear along the old nomadic path. Riding horses, male laborers move forward along the nomadic path while grazing their sheep, goats and horses, and they join the team carrying yurts that have already arrived at a destination for the night. Nomadic paths are of great importance for nomadic production, and livestock moving to other pastures have to use these paths. The paths must be protected from being diverted to other purposes so that there will be normal nomadic production. However, many areas now provide bus services between pastoral areas and county seats, townships and towns. The services are usually provided with jeeps that are good at traveling in the country. Young Kazak people or young men of other ethnic groups are the drivers, and they provide irregular services between pastoral areas and townships, towns and county seats. This makes it more convenient for nomads to go on business outside their homes. A distance that used to take them one or two days to cover on horseback now takes them only several hours, and they can make a round trip within a day. In many areas, nomads are willing to use buses as their main means of transportation on their way to county seats or townships and towns. In some areas where nomads do not move a lot in quest of pasture, richer nomads use trucks to transport their homes or even their livestock so that they do not have to work so hard to herd their livestock to another pasture.

    Kazak nomads live on meat and dairy products all the year round. Since modern times, as they have increased their exchanges with agricultural residents, they have been eating more and more wheaten food. In the vocabulary of Kazak people, drinking tea and dining are two main forms of dining. When you visit their homes, your hospitable hosts would treat you first to tea. They cook red tea and smashed brick tea in boiling water and then mix the tea with fresh milk in a bowl to make milk tea, a must for Kazak people. Milk tea is often accompanied with refreshments such as flat cakes or balsak as well as some butter made by nomads themselves and the raisins, preserved sweetened apricots and other dried fruits and candies they bought. Milk tea is usually served with salt, and some people like to add crystal sugar to their milk tea. Flat cakes are local food all Xinjiang ethnic groups like. They are made with fermented flour. Fermented flour is cut into small pieces and baked on the wall of the stove. Balsak is a kind of deep-fried food made of fermented flour. Fermented flour is rolled out thin and cut into pieces. The pieces are deep-fried in a mixture of edible oil and sheep fat. Both flat cakes and balsak can be stored for a long time and are therefore good for nomadic life. If they do not prepare special food, Kazak people drink tea for the three meals a day. In busy seasons, they may not have time for “dining,” they live on “tea” every day. In addition to milk tea, kumis, called “manaizi” locally, is a more distinctive drink. In the summer pasture, horse milk is preserved in cattle hide bags for fermentation and constantly stirred so that it will become fully fermented. Well-prepared kumis is sour and sweet, helps you digest and is good for your stomach. It is really refreshing to drink it in midsummer. Kazak people living in cities therefore like visiting their relatives in pastoral areas in summer to drink kumis. People in pastoral areas also present kumis to their urban relatives as gifts.

    The “food” referred to by Kazak people is mainly stewed mutton served with hands. When they have distinguished guests, Kazak nomads would slaughter lamps. This is especially true in the summer pasture. Lambs are always slaughtered for festivals, weddings and funerals. Before a lamb is killed, it is led into the yurt. The distinguished guest or the oldest man holds a ceremony called “duwa” to offer best wishes and prayers. It does not take long for a lamb carcass to be cut up properly. A part of the lamb is usually set aside, salted and dried on the yurts railings to make dried mutton. The head and trotters of the lamb are ridded of their hair and cooked with mutton without salt. And then they are served together with salt or salted sauces. When stewed mutton is served with hands, the lamb head will be served first. The distinguished guest, the oldest man or someone else will cut it and share it with others. The mutton on the lamps left cheek should be presented to the distinguished guest or the oldest man as a sign of respect, and lamp ears should be given to young children so that they will be obedient to their elders. There is also a rule for distributing other parts of the lamb; it is distributed to people by their status. Sometimes fat is smashed, and the host will hold it in both hands and feed it to their guest. In some areas, Kazak people cook noodles or dough strips and mix them with stewed mutton. Hot mutton soup is also delicious at the feast. On many occasions, Kazak people treat stewed mutton or beef to their guests. At present, many nomads buy fresh vegetables from commercial outlets or peddlers in their pastoral areas and cook them with dried or fresh mutton, and their main food is flat cakes. Cooked dried mutton is a delicacy.

    Kazak people believe in Islam and follow Islamic customs in their everyday life and in their weddings, circumcisions and funerals. Kazak religious service providers are called maulas who are well versed in Koran and provide daily religious services. However, you can hardly see any mosques in pastoral areas. Only small mosques can been found in areas close to agricultural settlements or in large settlements. Nomads do religious services five times a day facing Mecca usually in their yurts. At circumcisions and funerals in pastoral areas, there will be a big gathering of nomads. They may also great together to do religious services at a high and vast place. It is mostly elderly people who keep doing religious services every day. On Friday, the Islamic Djumah, some of these people may do religious services in nearby mosques. Some maulas who serve pastoral areas are nomads themselves, and it is therefore very convenient for them to host religious activities for nomads.

    It is in this way that Kazak nomads in northern Xinjiang, China, continue and constantly upgrade their traditions, retain the lifestyle that is of great significance for human existence and add glory to the great family of Chinese ethnic groups.

    猜你喜歡
    王建民
    Thermometry utilizing stored short-wavelength spin waves in cold atomic ensembles
    紅堿淖在思念
    崖畔上酸棗紅艷艷
    圪梁梁
    夢(mèng)
    王建民:羊大為美 知行合一
    太陽(yáng)
    太陽(yáng)
    哪个播放器可以免费观看大片| 18禁裸乳无遮挡免费网站照片| 日本猛色少妇xxxxx猛交久久| 亚洲欧美日韩无卡精品| 在线观看美女被高潮喷水网站| 亚洲精品自拍成人| 你懂的网址亚洲精品在线观看| .国产精品久久| 麻豆成人av视频| 亚洲精品一二三| 成人欧美大片| 精品久久久噜噜| videos熟女内射| 国产精品久久久久久精品古装| 毛片女人毛片| 国产成人a∨麻豆精品| 欧美日韩视频高清一区二区三区二| 久久久久久久午夜电影| 一级片'在线观看视频| 国产成人精品婷婷| 精品一区二区免费观看| 3wmmmm亚洲av在线观看| 欧美日韩视频精品一区| 亚洲成人精品中文字幕电影| 亚洲精品,欧美精品| 亚洲真实伦在线观看| 亚洲精品日韩在线中文字幕| av在线观看视频网站免费| av在线观看视频网站免费| av国产免费在线观看| 国产一区二区在线观看日韩| 成人国产麻豆网| 18禁裸乳无遮挡动漫免费视频 | 晚上一个人看的免费电影| 亚洲精品456在线播放app| 又爽又黄无遮挡网站| 亚洲精品456在线播放app| 成年免费大片在线观看| 51国产日韩欧美| 狂野欧美激情性bbbbbb| 五月天丁香电影| 麻豆成人午夜福利视频| 国产美女午夜福利| 国产精品嫩草影院av在线观看| 好男人在线观看高清免费视频| 精品久久久精品久久久| 大香蕉97超碰在线| 一区二区三区乱码不卡18| 色播亚洲综合网| 91久久精品国产一区二区成人| 亚洲色图综合在线观看| 亚洲国产精品成人综合色| 性色avwww在线观看| 丰满少妇做爰视频| 18禁在线无遮挡免费观看视频| 亚洲国产精品成人综合色| 午夜福利视频1000在线观看| 成人无遮挡网站| 亚洲欧美清纯卡通| 国产精品嫩草影院av在线观看| 在现免费观看毛片| 99久国产av精品国产电影| 黄色视频在线播放观看不卡| 久久99热6这里只有精品| 国产精品蜜桃在线观看| 精品99又大又爽又粗少妇毛片| 91精品国产九色| 蜜桃久久精品国产亚洲av| 亚洲国产精品国产精品| 成人一区二区视频在线观看| 波多野结衣巨乳人妻| 人妻一区二区av| 亚洲av二区三区四区| 精品熟女少妇av免费看| 国内精品美女久久久久久| 国产精品国产三级专区第一集| 欧美日韩在线观看h| 亚洲美女视频黄频| 成人国产av品久久久| 1000部很黄的大片| 街头女战士在线观看网站| 国产 一区精品| 国产成人91sexporn| 国产男人的电影天堂91| 在线观看美女被高潮喷水网站| 亚洲精品影视一区二区三区av| 国内精品宾馆在线| 人妻少妇偷人精品九色| 麻豆乱淫一区二区| 丝瓜视频免费看黄片| 国产午夜精品一二区理论片| 人妻一区二区av| 成人免费观看视频高清| 国产老妇女一区| 亚洲电影在线观看av| 亚洲精品视频女| 精品人妻视频免费看| 成人国产av品久久久| 男女国产视频网站| 亚洲精品国产成人久久av| 日韩强制内射视频| 欧美激情在线99| 国内精品宾馆在线| 亚洲人与动物交配视频| 极品教师在线视频| 久久久久久久亚洲中文字幕| 国产精品不卡视频一区二区| 色网站视频免费| 黄色配什么色好看| 看十八女毛片水多多多| 国产免费福利视频在线观看| 男的添女的下面高潮视频| 街头女战士在线观看网站| 国产精品久久久久久精品电影| 久久久国产一区二区| 综合色丁香网| 下体分泌物呈黄色| 香蕉精品网在线| 国产色婷婷99| 99re6热这里在线精品视频| 插逼视频在线观看| 蜜臀久久99精品久久宅男| 看非洲黑人一级黄片| 97超视频在线观看视频| 欧美性感艳星| 国模一区二区三区四区视频| 午夜爱爱视频在线播放| 成人二区视频| 夜夜爽夜夜爽视频| 免费av观看视频| 久久亚洲国产成人精品v| 国产欧美亚洲国产| 国产成人精品久久久久久| 免费高清在线观看视频在线观看| 久久久久精品久久久久真实原创| 一本—道久久a久久精品蜜桃钙片 精品乱码久久久久久99久播 | 大码成人一级视频| 亚洲精品国产色婷婷电影| 色播亚洲综合网| 在线观看免费高清a一片| 国产精品熟女久久久久浪| 狂野欧美白嫩少妇大欣赏| 韩国高清视频一区二区三区| 99久久人妻综合| 一级爰片在线观看| 久久亚洲国产成人精品v| 白带黄色成豆腐渣| 亚洲国产高清在线一区二区三| 亚洲一区二区三区欧美精品 | 免费在线观看成人毛片| 亚洲av不卡在线观看| 丝袜喷水一区| 亚洲国产精品999| 国产午夜福利久久久久久| 日韩精品有码人妻一区| 搡老乐熟女国产| 国内精品宾馆在线| 欧美成人精品欧美一级黄| 国产精品麻豆人妻色哟哟久久| 精品酒店卫生间| 亚洲自拍偷在线| 各种免费的搞黄视频| 日本av手机在线免费观看| 色婷婷久久久亚洲欧美| 中文字幕亚洲精品专区| 日韩电影二区| 人人妻人人爽人人添夜夜欢视频 | 日本猛色少妇xxxxx猛交久久| 国精品久久久久久国模美| 热99国产精品久久久久久7| 成人鲁丝片一二三区免费| 在线观看人妻少妇| 看免费成人av毛片| 三级国产精品欧美在线观看| 3wmmmm亚洲av在线观看| 精品久久国产蜜桃| 性色avwww在线观看| 国产精品蜜桃在线观看| 国产伦精品一区二区三区四那| 成人免费观看视频高清| 日韩欧美 国产精品| 国产精品av视频在线免费观看| 免费不卡的大黄色大毛片视频在线观看| 91久久精品国产一区二区成人| av女优亚洲男人天堂| 国产精品蜜桃在线观看| 成人午夜精彩视频在线观看| 一个人看的www免费观看视频| 男人舔奶头视频| 国产成人福利小说| 欧美成人一区二区免费高清观看| 青春草国产在线视频| 老女人水多毛片| 搞女人的毛片| 国产永久视频网站| 亚洲综合色惰| 一区二区三区四区激情视频| 亚洲欧美一区二区三区国产| 国产精品麻豆人妻色哟哟久久| 三级经典国产精品| 黑人高潮一二区| 精品一区二区三区视频在线| 日韩一区二区视频免费看| 亚洲精品自拍成人| 成人漫画全彩无遮挡| 美女视频免费永久观看网站| 九草在线视频观看| 亚洲国产av新网站| 久久国内精品自在自线图片| 国产日韩欧美在线精品| 国内精品美女久久久久久| 九色成人免费人妻av| 午夜爱爱视频在线播放| 欧美潮喷喷水| 少妇高潮的动态图| 久久久久久久久久人人人人人人| 91aial.com中文字幕在线观看| 一级a做视频免费观看| 久久久久九九精品影院| 一级爰片在线观看| 91精品一卡2卡3卡4卡| 在线天堂最新版资源| 欧美bdsm另类| 超碰av人人做人人爽久久| 国产精品99久久99久久久不卡 | 国产精品女同一区二区软件| 色婷婷久久久亚洲欧美| av在线老鸭窝| 一个人看的www免费观看视频| eeuss影院久久| 观看美女的网站| 乱系列少妇在线播放| av黄色大香蕉| 99久久九九国产精品国产免费| 欧美日韩在线观看h| 亚洲精品国产色婷婷电影| 国产精品熟女久久久久浪| 国产一区有黄有色的免费视频| 99久久九九国产精品国产免费| 日本色播在线视频| 观看美女的网站| 干丝袜人妻中文字幕| 欧美老熟妇乱子伦牲交| 亚洲一区二区三区欧美精品 | tube8黄色片| 国产精品一区二区在线观看99| 美女主播在线视频| 观看美女的网站| 免费黄色在线免费观看| 成人一区二区视频在线观看| 精品熟女少妇av免费看| 菩萨蛮人人尽说江南好唐韦庄| 久久久久久久精品精品| 亚洲成人一二三区av| 伦精品一区二区三区| 亚洲av国产av综合av卡| 一级片'在线观看视频| 男人和女人高潮做爰伦理| 新久久久久国产一级毛片| 国产黄片美女视频| 亚洲熟女精品中文字幕| 校园人妻丝袜中文字幕| 国产精品国产三级国产专区5o| 少妇的逼水好多| 在线看a的网站| 黑人高潮一二区| 禁无遮挡网站| 久久久久久久国产电影| 91狼人影院| 汤姆久久久久久久影院中文字幕| 国产黄a三级三级三级人| 国产在视频线精品| 亚洲精品一区蜜桃| 国产免费又黄又爽又色| 亚洲经典国产精华液单| 欧美日韩视频精品一区| 国产亚洲最大av| 欧美zozozo另类| 国产亚洲一区二区精品| 中文字幕免费在线视频6| 国产色爽女视频免费观看| 精品国产露脸久久av麻豆| 国产成人免费观看mmmm| 好男人视频免费观看在线| 久久精品国产亚洲av天美| 五月开心婷婷网| 免费播放大片免费观看视频在线观看| 69人妻影院| 一级av片app| 日韩,欧美,国产一区二区三区| 国产真实伦视频高清在线观看| 亚洲av电影在线观看一区二区三区 | 日本wwww免费看| 嫩草影院入口| 又爽又黄a免费视频| 亚洲第一区二区三区不卡| 各种免费的搞黄视频| 五月天丁香电影| 日韩欧美一区视频在线观看 | 婷婷色av中文字幕| 97超碰精品成人国产| 亚洲精品日韩在线中文字幕| 97在线视频观看| 99热6这里只有精品| 国产又色又爽无遮挡免| 久久久久久九九精品二区国产| 综合色av麻豆| 在线免费观看不下载黄p国产| 久久久精品免费免费高清| 日韩av不卡免费在线播放| 激情 狠狠 欧美| 男人狂女人下面高潮的视频| www.av在线官网国产| 看非洲黑人一级黄片| 一二三四中文在线观看免费高清| 欧美成人午夜免费资源| .国产精品久久| 99久久中文字幕三级久久日本| 美女cb高潮喷水在线观看| 国产黄频视频在线观看| 免费电影在线观看免费观看| 少妇猛男粗大的猛烈进出视频 | 国产极品天堂在线| 欧美性猛交╳xxx乱大交人| 青春草国产在线视频| 国产探花极品一区二区| 欧美日韩精品成人综合77777| 性插视频无遮挡在线免费观看| 国产人妻一区二区三区在| 久久久久九九精品影院| 免费观看在线日韩| 免费不卡的大黄色大毛片视频在线观看| 亚洲av免费高清在线观看| 美女脱内裤让男人舔精品视频| 久久久久久久久久久免费av| 国产人妻一区二区三区在| 国产亚洲最大av| 男女国产视频网站| 91久久精品国产一区二区成人| 中文乱码字字幕精品一区二区三区| 一级黄片播放器| 国产乱人偷精品视频| 人人妻人人看人人澡| 亚洲国产日韩一区二区| 亚洲欧美精品自产自拍| 亚洲欧美精品专区久久| 精品久久久久久电影网| 一级毛片电影观看| 天天躁日日操中文字幕| 中文乱码字字幕精品一区二区三区| 女人被狂操c到高潮| 亚洲人成网站在线播| 成年女人在线观看亚洲视频 | 男女国产视频网站| 免费看日本二区| 成年版毛片免费区| 最近最新中文字幕免费大全7| 一本久久精品| 日韩电影二区| 亚洲一区二区三区欧美精品 | a级毛色黄片| kizo精华| 日本与韩国留学比较| 久久精品久久精品一区二区三区| 亚洲图色成人| 寂寞人妻少妇视频99o| 日韩强制内射视频| 国产精品一二三区在线看| 国产成人一区二区在线| 欧美bdsm另类| 亚洲综合精品二区| 一级毛片aaaaaa免费看小| 亚洲精品乱码久久久久久按摩| 久久久精品欧美日韩精品| 欧美3d第一页| 亚洲av二区三区四区| 在线观看三级黄色| 韩国高清视频一区二区三区| 日韩,欧美,国产一区二区三区| 日韩制服骚丝袜av| 久久久久精品性色| 人人妻人人爽人人添夜夜欢视频 | 国产亚洲最大av| 亚洲国产精品国产精品| 九九在线视频观看精品| 欧美另类一区| 91精品国产九色| 国产精品久久久久久久电影| 欧美精品国产亚洲| 人妻系列 视频| 国产黄片美女视频| 久久人人爽人人爽人人片va| 99热全是精品| 波野结衣二区三区在线| 国产精品人妻久久久影院| 国产视频内射| av天堂中文字幕网| 亚洲av免费在线观看| 久久精品夜色国产| 大香蕉久久网| 各种免费的搞黄视频| 建设人人有责人人尽责人人享有的 | 99久久中文字幕三级久久日本| 亚洲欧美一区二区三区国产| 99久久九九国产精品国产免费| 亚洲av福利一区| 美女视频免费永久观看网站| 在线天堂最新版资源| 麻豆国产97在线/欧美| 久久精品久久久久久久性| 国产高清不卡午夜福利| 夫妻午夜视频| 麻豆乱淫一区二区| 亚洲成色77777| 91久久精品国产一区二区三区| 亚洲精品乱码久久久v下载方式| 午夜福利高清视频| 亚洲,一卡二卡三卡| 久久久久久久亚洲中文字幕| 国产精品偷伦视频观看了| 精品久久久精品久久久| 18+在线观看网站| 一级毛片 在线播放| 久久99热6这里只有精品| 国产男女超爽视频在线观看| 亚洲国产欧美人成| 香蕉精品网在线| 女人久久www免费人成看片| 久久精品国产自在天天线| 青春草亚洲视频在线观看| 少妇 在线观看| 欧美高清成人免费视频www| 国产成人精品久久久久久| 少妇人妻久久综合中文| 国产高清有码在线观看视频| 久久精品久久久久久久性| 91精品一卡2卡3卡4卡| 2022亚洲国产成人精品| 亚洲精品国产色婷婷电影| 日本黄色片子视频| 日韩成人伦理影院| 久久久欧美国产精品| 国产亚洲精品久久久com| 99热这里只有是精品50| av天堂中文字幕网| 深爱激情五月婷婷| 成人欧美大片| 中文天堂在线官网| 插阴视频在线观看视频| 国产亚洲精品久久久com| 日韩成人av中文字幕在线观看| 精品少妇黑人巨大在线播放| 校园人妻丝袜中文字幕| 91精品一卡2卡3卡4卡| 国产av不卡久久| 日本三级黄在线观看| 亚洲欧洲国产日韩| a级毛色黄片| 国产亚洲5aaaaa淫片| 人妻少妇偷人精品九色| 另类亚洲欧美激情| 久久精品综合一区二区三区| 国产色婷婷99| 日韩大片免费观看网站| 一本一本综合久久| 黄色日韩在线| 国产免费视频播放在线视频| 成人高潮视频无遮挡免费网站| 听说在线观看完整版免费高清| 国产白丝娇喘喷水9色精品| 欧美性猛交╳xxx乱大交人| av线在线观看网站| 日本色播在线视频| 久久久久国产精品人妻一区二区| 插逼视频在线观看| 日韩成人av中文字幕在线观看| 免费少妇av软件| 菩萨蛮人人尽说江南好唐韦庄| 欧美丝袜亚洲另类| 免费av不卡在线播放| 久久久久久久精品精品| 少妇的逼水好多| 国产男女内射视频| 又黄又爽又刺激的免费视频.| 精品人妻视频免费看| 亚洲欧美一区二区三区国产| 三级国产精品欧美在线观看| 欧美成人一区二区免费高清观看| 看免费成人av毛片| 欧美少妇被猛烈插入视频| 国产免费又黄又爽又色| 一本—道久久a久久精品蜜桃钙片 精品乱码久久久久久99久播 | 校园人妻丝袜中文字幕| 成人一区二区视频在线观看| 免费不卡的大黄色大毛片视频在线观看| 中文字幕免费在线视频6| 亚洲精品亚洲一区二区| 麻豆成人午夜福利视频| 国产精品久久久久久久电影| 精品久久久久久久末码| 91狼人影院| 高清av免费在线| 新久久久久国产一级毛片| 国产一区二区在线观看日韩| 午夜爱爱视频在线播放| 夜夜看夜夜爽夜夜摸| 97热精品久久久久久| 人人妻人人澡人人爽人人夜夜| 校园人妻丝袜中文字幕| 亚洲性久久影院| 99九九线精品视频在线观看视频| 国产伦精品一区二区三区四那| 日韩三级伦理在线观看| 国产在线一区二区三区精| 最新中文字幕久久久久| 亚洲精品国产av蜜桃| 3wmmmm亚洲av在线观看| 美女高潮的动态| 国产亚洲5aaaaa淫片| 在线免费观看不下载黄p国产| 亚洲精品自拍成人| 麻豆成人午夜福利视频| av在线蜜桃| 春色校园在线视频观看| 99视频精品全部免费 在线| 91精品伊人久久大香线蕉| 欧美人与善性xxx| 在线观看国产h片| 成人欧美大片| 亚洲国产欧美人成| 日韩一区二区视频免费看| 少妇的逼好多水| a级一级毛片免费在线观看| 2018国产大陆天天弄谢| 男人添女人高潮全过程视频| 精品午夜福利在线看| 免费少妇av软件| 亚洲国产欧美在线一区| 日本一本二区三区精品| 亚洲av男天堂| 伊人久久国产一区二区| 亚洲国产av新网站| 欧美成人午夜免费资源| 亚洲欧洲国产日韩| 亚洲精品一区蜜桃| www.色视频.com| 国产大屁股一区二区在线视频| 99久久中文字幕三级久久日本| 真实男女啪啪啪动态图| 丰满人妻一区二区三区视频av| 免费少妇av软件| 国产黄a三级三级三级人| 男女无遮挡免费网站观看| 久久人人爽人人爽人人片va| 国产成人精品一,二区| 爱豆传媒免费全集在线观看| 成人美女网站在线观看视频| 国产欧美另类精品又又久久亚洲欧美| 又黄又爽又刺激的免费视频.| av又黄又爽大尺度在线免费看| 黄色欧美视频在线观看| 啦啦啦在线观看免费高清www| 青春草视频在线免费观看| 麻豆国产97在线/欧美| 成年女人在线观看亚洲视频 | 免费人成在线观看视频色| 国产一区二区亚洲精品在线观看| 另类亚洲欧美激情| 听说在线观看完整版免费高清| 国产成人一区二区在线| 国产高清有码在线观看视频| 亚洲成色77777| 一区二区三区乱码不卡18| 欧美xxⅹ黑人| 狂野欧美白嫩少妇大欣赏| 汤姆久久久久久久影院中文字幕| 日韩一区二区三区影片| 国产一区二区三区av在线| 美女视频免费永久观看网站| 日本午夜av视频| 中文字幕免费在线视频6| 亚洲av男天堂| 精品视频人人做人人爽| 成人特级av手机在线观看| 中文资源天堂在线| 国产精品爽爽va在线观看网站| 亚洲国产精品999| 一二三四中文在线观看免费高清| 国产男女超爽视频在线观看| 日本欧美国产在线视频| 亚洲激情五月婷婷啪啪| 国产一级毛片在线| 精品一区二区免费观看| 国产一区有黄有色的免费视频| 国产亚洲91精品色在线| 秋霞伦理黄片| 一级毛片久久久久久久久女| www.av在线官网国产| 插阴视频在线观看视频| 纵有疾风起免费观看全集完整版| 51国产日韩欧美| 亚洲成人精品中文字幕电影| 中文字幕制服av| 精品一区二区免费观看| 精品一区二区三卡| 久久久精品欧美日韩精品| 久久鲁丝午夜福利片| 王馨瑶露胸无遮挡在线观看| 1000部很黄的大片| 天堂俺去俺来也www色官网| 亚洲真实伦在线观看| 中文字幕亚洲精品专区| 菩萨蛮人人尽说江南好唐韦庄| 日本一本二区三区精品| 国产一区二区亚洲精品在线观看|